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BOTANY 


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1  "From  fragile  mushrooms,  delicate  water  -  weeds  and  pond  scums,  to  tloating  lenves. 
soft  grasses,  coarse  weeds,  tall  bushes,  slender  olimbers,  gigantic  trees  and 
hanging  moss."    See  Chapter  I. 


BOTANY 

AJV  ELEMENTARY    TEXT 
FOR    SCHOOLS 


BY 

L.  H|  BAILEY 


THE    MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

LONDOX:    MACMILLAN  &  CO..  Ltd. 

1909 

All  rights  reserved 


Copyright  1900,  1907. 
By  L.  H.  bailey 


Set  up  and  eleetrotyped  October,  1900 

Reprinted  with  corrections  Jiuiuary,  July,  October,  moi 

July,  1903,  June,  1904,  March,  July,  19U5 

January,  June,  1906,  September,  1907 

New  edition  with  additions,  October,  ]fl07 

January  and  Sepiember,  1909 


JDSount  {pleasant  Press 

J.  Horace  Mcharland  Cunipariy 
Harrisburg,  Pa. 


PARAGRAPHS  FOR  THE  TEACHER 

{Revised  for  second  edition.) 

This  book  is  made  for  the  pupil:  "Lessons  with 
Plants"  was  made  to  supplement  the  work  of  the 
teacher. 

There  are  four  general  subjects  in  this  book  :  .  the 
nature  of  the  plant  itself;  the  relation  of  the  plant 
to  its  surroundings;  histological  studies;  determination 
of  the  kinds  of  plants.  From  the  pedagogical  point 
of  view,  the  third  is  the  least  important:  the  writer 
has  inserted  it  because  so  many  schools  want  it.  Each 
of  the  subjects  is  practically  distinct,  so  that  the 
teacher  may  begin  where  he  will.  Few  schools  will 
desire   to    pursue   all  the   four   parts 

The  notes  in  small  type  at  the  ends  of  the  chap- 
ters are  intended  as  suggestions  and  to  supply  infor- 
mation to  teachers:  they  are  not  necessarily  for  class 
use.  The  explanation  of  karyokinesis,  for  example,  on 
page  239,  is  intended  to  answer  frequent  inquiries 
from  teachers;  it  is  not  to  be  taught  to  beginners. 
The  main  object  of  the  "Notes,"  however,  is  to  sug- 
gest  experiments   and   corollary  observations. 

The  schools  and  the  teachers  are  not  ready  for 
the  text -book  which  presents  the  subject  from  the 
view -point  of    botanical    science.      Perhaps   it    is   better 

'  ^J>^       iV.  C.  State  Loiuge 


VI         PARAGRAPHS  FOR  THE  TEACHER 

tliat  the  secondary  schools  attempt  only  to  teach 
plants. 

A  book  may  be  ideal  from  the  specialist's  point  of 
view,  and  yet  be  of  little  use  to  the  pupil  and  the 
school. 

Every  statement  in  an  elementary  text -book  has 
two  values, —  the  teaching  value  and  the  scientific 
value.  An  elementary  text -book  exists  primarily  for 
the  purpose  of  teaching;  and  good  teaching  results  in 
quickened  perception  rather  than  in  absorption  of 
facts. 

The  pupil  should  come  to  the  study  of  plants  and 
animals  with  little  more  than  his  natural  and  native 
powers.  Study  with  the  compound  microscope  is  a 
specialization  to  be  made  when  the  pupil  has  had 
experience,  and  when  his  judgment  and  sense  of 
relationships   are   trained. 

One  of  the  first  things  that  a  child  should  learn 
when  he  comes  to  the  study  of  natural  history  is  the 
fact  that  no  two  things  are  alike.  This  leads  to  an 
apprehension  of  the  correlated  fact  that  every  animal 
and  plant  contends  for  an  opportunity  to  live,  and  this 
is  the  central  fact  in  the  study  of  living  things.  The 
world  has  a  new  meaning  when  this  fact  is  under- 
stood. 

The  ninety  and  nine  cannot  and  should  not  be 
botanists,  but  everyone  can  love  plants  and  nature. 
Every  person  is  interested  in  the  evident  things,  few 
in  the  abstruse  and  recondite.  Education  should  train 
persons   to   live,    rather   than    to   be   scientists. 


PARAGRAPHS  FOR  THE  TEACHER         Vll 

Now  and  theu  a  pupil  develops  a  love  of  science 
for  science's  sake.  He  would  be  an  investigator.  He 
would  add  to  the  sum  of  human  knowledge.  He  should 
be  encouraged.  There  are  colleges  and  universities  in 
which    he    may   continue   his    studies. 

In  the  secondary  schools  botany  should  be  taught 
for  the  purpose  of  bringing  the  pupil  closer  to  the 
things  with  which  he  lives,  of  widening  his  horizon, 
of  intensifying  his  hold  on  life.  It  should  begin 
with  familiar  plant  forms  and  phenomena.  It  should 
be  related  to  the  experiences  of  the  daily  life.  It 
should  not  be  taught  for  the  purpose  of  making  the 
pupil  a  specialist:  that  effort  should  be  retained  for  the 
few  who  develop  a  taste  for  special  knowledge.  It  is 
often  said  that  the  high -school  pupil  should  begin  the 
study  of  botany  with  the  lowest  and  simplest  forms  of 
life.  This  is  wrong.  The  microscope  is  not  an  intro- 
duction to  nature.  It  is  said  that  the  physiology  of 
plants  can  be  best  understood  by  beginning  with  the 
lower  forms.  This  may  be  true:  but  technical  plant 
physiology  is  not  a  subject  for  the  beginner.  Other 
subjects   are   more    important. 

The  youth  is  by  nature  a  generalist.  He  should 
not   be   forced   to   be   a   specialist. 


A  great  difficulty  in  the  teaching  of  botany  is  to 
determine  what  are  the  most  profitable  topics  for  con- 
sideration.    The    trouble  with    much   of   the    teaching   is 


VIU        PARAGRAPHS  FOR  THE  TEACHER 

that   it   attempts  to    go   too   far,  and   the   subjects   have 
no   vital   connection    with   the   pupil's   life. 

Good  botanical  teaching  for  the  young  is  replete 
with  human  interest.  It  is  connected  with  the  common 
associations. 

The  teacher  often  hesitates  to  teach  botany  because 
of  lack  of  technical  knowledge  of  the  subject.  This 
is  well  ;  but  technical  knowledge  of  the  subject  does 
not  make  a  good  teacher.  Expert  specialists  are  so 
likely  to  go  into  mere  details  and  to  pursue  particu« 
lar  subjects  so  far,  when  teaching  beginners,  as  to 
miss  the  leading  and  emphatic  points.  They  are  so 
cognizant  of  exceptions  to  every  rule  that  they  qualify 
their  statements  until  the  statements  have  no  force. 
There  are  other  ideals  than  those  of  mere  accuracy.  In 
other  words,  it  is  more  important  that  the  teacher  be 
a  good  teacher  than  a  good  botanist.  One  may  be 
so  exact  that  his  words  mean  n/)thing.  But  being  a 
good   botanist    does    not    spoil  a   good   teacher. 

An  imperfect  method  that  is  adapted  to  one's  use 
is  better  than  a  perfect  one  that  cannot  be  used. 
Some  school  laboratories  are  so  perfect  that  they  dis- 
courage the  pupil  in  taking  up  investigations  when 
thrown  on  his  own  resources.  Imperfect  equipment 
often  encourages  ingenuity  and  originality.  A  good 
teacher  is  better  than  all  the  laboratories  and  apparatus. 

Good  teaching  devolves  on  the  personality  and 
enthusiasm    of    the    teacher;    but    subject-matter    is    a 


PARAGRAPHS  FOR  THE  TEACHER         IX 

prime  requisite.  The  teacher  should  know  more  than 
he  attempts  to  teach.  Every  teacher  should  have 
access  to  the  current  botanical  books.  The  school 
library  should  contain  these  books.  By  consulting  the 
new  books  the  teacher  keeps  abreast  of  the  latest 
opinion. 

When  beginning  to  teach  plants,  think  more  of 
the  pupil  than  of  botany.  The  pupil's  mind  and  sym- 
pathies are  to  be  expanded:  the  science  of  botany  is 
not  to  be  extended.  The  teacher  who  thinks  first  of 
his  subject  teaches  science ;  he  who  thinks  first  of 
his  pupil    teaches  nature-study. 

Teach  first  the  things  nearest  to  hand.  When  the 
pupil  has  seen  the  common,  he  may  be  introduced  to 
the  rare  and  distant.  We  live  in  the  midst  of  common 
things. 

The  old  way  of  teaching  botany  was  to  teach  the 
forms  and  the  names  of  plants.  It  is  now  proposed 
that  only  function  be  taught.  But  one  cannot  study 
function  intelligently  without  some  knowledge  of  plant 
forms  and  names.  He  must  know  the  language  of  the 
subject.  The  study  of  form  and  function  should  go 
togethei*.  Correlate  what  a  plant  is  with  what  it  does. 
What  is  this  part?  What  is  its  office,  or  how  did  it 
come  to  be?  It  were  a  pity  to  teach  phyllotaxy  with- 
out teaching  light -relation:  it  were  an  equal  pity  to 
teach  light -relation  without   teaching  phyllotaxy. 


X  PAKAGRAPHS  FOR  THE  TEACHER 

Four  epochs  can  be  traced  in  the  teaching  of 
elementary  botany:  (1)  The  effort  to  know  the  names 
of  plants  and  to  classif3^  This  was  the  outgrowth  of 
the  earlier  aspect  of  plant  knowledge,  when  it  was 
necessary  to  make  an  inventory  of  the  things  in  the 
world.  (2)  The  desire  to  know  the  formal  names  of 
the  parts  of  plants.  This  was  an  outgrowth  of  the 
study  of  gross  morphology.  Botanies  came  to  be  dic- 
tionaries of  technical  terms.  (3)  The  effort  to  develop 
the  powers  of  independent  investigation.  This  was 
largely  a  result  of  the  German  laboratory  system, 
which  developed  the  trained  specialist  investigator.  It 
emphasized  the  value  of  the  compound  microscope 
and  other  apparatus.  This  method  is  of  the  greatest 
service  to  botanical  science,  but  its  introduction  into 
the  secondary  schools  is  usually  unfortunate.  (4)  The 
effort  to  know  the  plant  as  a  complete  organism 
living  its  own  life  in  a  natural  way.  In  the  begin- 
ning  of    this   epoch    we    are    now   living. 

There  is  a  general  protest  against  the  teaching  of 
"big  names"  to  pupils;  but  the  pupil  does  not  object 
to  technical  terms  if  he  acquires  them  when  he  learns 
the  thing  to  which  they  belong,  as  he  acquires  other 
language.  When  a  part  is  discovered  the  name 
becomes  a  necessity,  and  is  not  easily  forgotten.  He 
should  be  taught  not  to  memorize  the  names.  The 
"hard"  words  of  to-day  are  the  familiar  words  of 
to-morrow.  There  are  no  words  in  this  book  harder 
than    chrysanthemum,    thermometer,   and    hippopotamus 


PAKAGRAPHS  FOR  THE  TEACHER         XI 

The  book  should  be  a  guide  to  the  plant :  the 
plant   should   be   a   guide   to    the   book. 

Plants  should  not  be  personified  or  endowed  out- 
right with  motives ;  but  figures  of  speech  and  para- 
bles may  often  be  employed  to  teach  a  lesson  or  to 
drive   home   a   point. 

Excite    the   pupil's    interest   rather   than    his    wonder. 

The  better  the  teacher,  the  less  he  will  confine  him- 
self to  the  questions  at  the  end  of  the  lesson. 

Botany  always  should  be  taught  by  the  "laboratory 
method:"  that  is,  the  pupil  should  work  out  the  sub- 
jects directly  from  the  specimens  themselves.  It  is 
easy,  however,  to  carry  the  laboratory  method  too 
far.  With  beginners,  it  is  rarely  good  teaching  merely 
to  set  a  young  pupil  a  task,  expecting  him  to  work 
it  out.  The  pupil  needs  suggestions,  help,  and  the 
enthusiasm   inspired   by  a   good   teacher. 

Specimens  mean  more  to  the  pupil  when  he  collects 
them. 

No  matter  how  commonplace  the  subject,  a  speci- 
men   will    vivify   it    and    fix    it    in    the    pupil's    mind. 

A  living,  growing  plant  is  worth  a  score  of  herba- 
rium  specimens. 

Acknoivledgements. — To  hundreds  of  young  people  in 
many  places  the  author  is  under  the  profoundest 
obligations,  for  they  have  instructed  him  in  the  point 
of  view.  Specific  aid  has  been  given  by  many  persons. 
From  the  teacher's  point  of  view,  proofs  have  been 
read    by    Miss    Julia    E.   Rogers,   Minburn,   Iowa;    Aliss 


Xll         PARAGRAPHS  FOR  THE  TEACHER 

L.  B.  Sage,  Norwich,  N.  Y.;  Mrs.  Mary  Rogers  Miller, 
lecturer  of  the  Bureau  of  Nature -Study  in  Cornell 
University.  From  the  botanist's  point  of  view,  all  the 
proofs  have  been  read  by  Dr.  Erwin  F.  Smith,  of 
the  Division  of  Vegetable  Physiology  and  Pathology, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  his 
suggestions  have  been  invaluable.  Chapters  XI  and 
XII  are  adapted  from  two  papers  which  were  con- 
tributed to  a  Farmer's  Reading-Course  under  the 
author's  charge,  by  Dr.  B.  M.  Duggar,  of  Cornell 
University.  Two  specialists,  with  whom  it  has  been 
the  author's  privilege  to  associate  as  teacher  and 
collaborator,  have  contributed  particular  parts:  Dr. 
K.  C.  Davis,  the  p-i-eater  portion  of  Part  III,  and 
H.  Hasselbring,  the  most  of  Chapter  XXV.  On  special 
problems  the  author  has  had  the  advice  of  Dr.  K.  M. 
Wiegand,    of    Cornell    Universit3^ 

L.  H.  BAILEY. 

Horticultural   Department, 

Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

October  1,  1900. 


CONTENTS 

PART    I 

The   Plant   Itself 


CHAPTER 


PAGK 


I.    The  Plant  as  a  Whole 1 

II.    The  Eoot 7 

III.  The  Stem 14 

IV.  Propagation  by  Means  of  Roots  and  Stems 19 

V.   How    the  Horticulturist    Propagates  Plants    by  Means 

of  Roots  and  Stems 24 

VI.   Food  Reservoirs  . 31 

VII.   Winter  Buds 36 

VIII.    Plants  and  Sunlight 42 

IX.    Struggle  for  Existence  amongst  the  Branches  ....  52 

X.    The  Forms  of  Plants 59 

XI.    How  the  Plant  Takes  in  the  Soil  Water 64 

XII.    The  Making  of  the  Living  Matter 74 

XIII.  Dependent  Plants 85 

XIV.  Leaves  and  Foliage 90 

XV.    Morphology,    or    the    Study   of    the   Forms    of    Plant 

Members 101 

XVI.    How  Plants  Climb 108 

XVII.    Flower- Branches 114 

XVIII.    The  Parts  of  the  Flower 122 

XIX.    Fertilization  and  Pollination 128 

XX.    Particular   Forms  of  Flowers 136 

XXL    Fruits 147 

XXII.    Dispersal  of  Seeds      158 

(xiii) 


XIV  CONTENTS 

CHAPTKR  PAflB 

XXIII.  Germination 164 

XXIV.  Phenogams  and  Cryptogams 172 

XXV.    Studies  in  Cryptogams      178 

PART    II 

The   Plant   in   Its   Environment 

XXVI.    Wliere  Plants  Grow 197 

XXVII.    Contention  with  Physical  Environment 203 

XXVIII.    Competition  with  Fellows 209 

XXIX.    Plant  Societies 219 

XXX.  Variation  and  Its  Results 228 

PART    III 
Histology,  or   the    Minute    Structure   of   Plants 

XXXI.  The  Cell 23o 

XXXII.    Contents  and  Products  of  Cells 245 

XXXIII.  Tissues 252 

XXXIV.  Structure  of  Stems  and  Roots 259 

XXXV.    Structure  of  Leaves 269 

PART    IV 
The    Kinds   of    Plants  (p.  275) 


BOTANY 


FART   I— THE    PLANT   ITSELF 


CHAPTER   I 


THE    PLANT    AS    A    WHOLE 


1.  A  plant  is  a  living,  growing  thing.  It  partakes  of 
the  soil  and  air  and  sunshine.  It  propagates  its  kind  and 
covers  the  face  of   the  earth.      It   has 

much  with  which  to  contend.  It  makes 
the  most  of  every  opportunity.  We 
shall  learn  its  parts,  how  it  lives,  and 
how  it  behaves. 

2.  THE  PARTS  OF  A  PLANT.  —  Our 
familiar  plants  are  made  up  of  several 
distinct  parts.  The  most  prominent  of 
these  parts  are  root,  stem,  leaf,  flower,  ^  ^. 
fruit  and  seed.  Fig.  2.  Familiar  plants  "  ^^s^ 
differ  wonderfidhj  in  size  and  shape,^ 
from  fragile  mushrooms,  delicate  water- 
weeds  and  pond-scums,  to  floating  leaves, 
soft  grasses,  coarse  weeds,  tall  bushes, 
slender  climbers,  gigantic  trees,  and 
hanging  moss.     See  frontispiece. 

3.  THE  STEM  PART.— In  most  plants 
there  is  a  main  central  part  or  shaft  on 
which  the  other  or  secondary  parts  are 

A  (1) 


2.   A  buttercup  plant, 
showing  the  various  parts 


N.  C.  State  Coiiegl 


2  THE    PLANT    AS    A    WHOLE 

borne.  This  main  part  is  the  plant  axis.  Above  ground, 
in  familiar  plants,  the  axis  bears  the  branches,  leaves 
and  flowers ;    below  ground,  it  bears  the  roots. 

4.  The  rigid  part  of  the  plant,  which  persists  over  win- 
ter and  which  is  left  after  leaves  and  flowers  are  fallen,  is 
the  framework  of  the  plant.  The  framework  is  composed 
of  both  root  and  stem.  When  the  plant  is  dead,  the 
framework  remains  for  a  time,  but  it  slowly  decays.  The 
dry  winter  stems  of  weeds  are  the  framework  or  skeleton 
of  the  plant.  Figs.  3  and  4.  The  framework  of  trees  is 
the  most  conspicuous  part  of  the  plant. 

5.  THE  ROOT  PART.  —  The  root  bears  the  stem  at  its 
apex,  but  otherwise  it  normally  bears  only  root-branches. 
The  stem,  however,  bears  leaves,  flowers  and  fruits. 
Those  living  surfaces  of  the  plant  which  are  most  exposed 
to  light  are  green  or  highly  colored.  The  root  tends  to 
grow  dowmvard,  but  the  stem  tends  to  grow  upivard  toward 
light  and  air.  The  plant  is  anchored  or  fixed  in  the  soil  by 
the  roots.     Plants  have  been  called  "earth  parasites." 

6.  THE  FOLIAGE  PART. —  The  leaves  precede  the  floivers 
in  point  of  time  or  in  the  life  of  the  plant.  The  floivers 
alivays  precede  the  fruits  and  seeds.  Many  plants  die  when 
the  seeds  have  matured.  The  whole  mass  of  leaves  of  any 
plant  or  any  branch  is  known  as  its  foliage. 

7.  THE  PLANT  GENERATION. —  The  course  of  a  plant's 
life,  with  all  the  events  through  which  the  plant  naturally 
passes,  is  known  as  the  plant's  life-history.  The  life- 
history  embraces  various  stages  or  epochs,  as  dormant  seed, 
germination,  growth,  flowering,  fruiting.  Some  plants  run 
their  course  in  a  few  weeks  or  months,  and  some  live 
for  centuries. 

8.  The  entire  life -period  of  a  plant  is  called  a  genera- 
tion. It  is  the  whole  period  from  birth  to  normal  death, 
without  reference  to  the  various  stages  or  events  through 
which  it  passes. 


THE     PLANT    GENERATION 


9.  A  generation  begins  with  the  ijoung  seed,  not  with 
germination.  It  ends  with  death  —  that  is,  when  no  life  is 
left  in  any  part  of  the  plant,  and  only  the  seed  or  spore 
remains  to  perpetuate  the  kind.  In  a  bulbous  plant,  as  a 
lily  or  an  onion,  the  generation 
does  not  end  until  the  bulb  dies, 
even  though  the  top  is  dead. 

10.  When  the  generation  is 
of  only  one  season's  duration, 
the  plant  is  said  to  be  annual. 
When  it  is  of  two  seasons,  it  is 
biennial.  Biennials  usually  bloom 
the  second  year.  When  of  three 
or  more  seasons,  the  plant  is 
perennial.  Examples  of  annuals 
are  pigweed,  bean,  pea,  garden 
sunflower;  of  biennials,  evening 
primrose,  mullein,  teasel,  par- 
snip, carrot  ;  of  perennials, 
dock,  meadow  grass,  cat-tail, 
and  all  shrubs  and  trees. 

11.  DURATION  OF  THE 
PLANT  BODY.  — Plant  struc- 
tures which  are  more  or  less 
soft    and    which    die    at    the 

close  of  the  season  are  said  to  be  herbaceous,  in  contra- 
distinction to  being  ligneous  or  woody.  A  plant  which  is 
herbaceous  to  the  ground  is  called  an  herb;  but  an  herb 
may  have  a  woody  or  perennial  root,  in  which  case  it  is 
called  an  herbaceous  perennial.  Annual  plants  are  classed 
as  herbs.  Examples  of  herbaceous  perennials  are  butter- 
cup (Fig.  2),  bleeding  heart,  violet,  water-lily,  many 
grasses,  dock,  dandelion,  golden  rod,  asparagus,  rhubarb, 
many  wild  sunflowers  (Figs.  3,  4). 

12.  Many  herbaceous  perennials  have  short  generations. 


THE    PLANT    AS    A    WHOLE 


They  become  weak  with  one  or  two  seasons  of  flowering 
and  gradually  die  out.  Thus  red  clover  begins  to  fail  after 
the  second  year.  Gardeners  know  that  the  best  bloom  of 
hollyhock,  larkspur,  pink,  and  many  other  plants,  is 
secured  when  the  plants  are  only  two  or  three  years  old. 

13.  Herbaceous  perennials  which  die  away  each  season 
to  bulbs  or  tubers,  are  sometimes  called  pseud-annuals 
(that  is,  false  annuals).  Of  such  are  lily,  crocus, 
onion,  potato 


5    A  shrub  or  bush     Dogwood  osier 

14.  Plants  which  are  normally  perennial  may  become 
annual  in  a  shorter -season  climate  by  being  killed  by  frost, 
rather  than  by  dying  naturally  at  the  end  of  a  season  of 
growth.  Such  plants  are  called  plur-annuals  in  the  short- 
season  region.  Many  tropical  perennials  are  plur-annuals 
when  grown  in  the  north,  but  they  are  treated  as  true  an- 
nuals because  they  ripen  sufficient  of  their  crop  the  same 
season  in  which  the  seeds  are  sown  to  make  them  worth 
cultivating,  as  tomato,  red  pepper,  castor  bean. 


HOW    PLANTS    ARE     MODIFIED 


15.  Woody  or  ligneous  plants  are  usually  longer  lived 
than  herbs.  Those  which  remain  low  and  produce  several 
or  many  similar  shoots  from  the  base  are  called  shrubs,  as 
lilac,  rose,  elder,  osier.  Fig.  5.  Low  and  thick  shrubs  are 
bushes.  Plants  which  produce  one  main  trunk  and  a 
more  or  less  elevated  head  are  trees.     Fig.  6. 

16.  PLANTS  ARE  MODIFIED  BY  THE  CONDITIONS  IN 
WHICH  THEY  GROW.— In  most  plants,  the  size,  form  and 
general  appearance  vary  or  change  with  the  conditions  in 
which  the  plant  groivs.      That  is,  , 

there  is  no  uniform   or  necessaij  ,'"_''' h 

form  into  which  plants  shall  grow  "^^i^^^-^ , 

No  two  plants  are  exactly  alike. 

Observe   plants  of   the  same   kind 

and  age,  and  see  how  they  differ 

or   vary.      The   farmer    and    gai 

dener  can  cause  plants  to  be  large 

or  small  of  their  kind,  by  chang 

ing  the  conditions  or  circumstan 

ces  under  which  they  grow, 

17.  No  two  parts  of  the  same 
plant  are  exactly  alike.  No  two 
parts  grow  in  the  same  conditions, 
for  one  is  nearer  the  main  stem, 
one  nearer  the  light,  and  another 
has  more  room.     Try  to  find  two 

leaves  or  two  branches  on  the  same  plant  which  are  exactly 
alike.     Fig.  7. 

18.  Every  plant  makes  an  effort  to  propagate  or  to  per- 
petuate its  kind;  and  as  far  as  we  can  see,  this  is  the  end 
for  which  the  plant  itself  lives.  The  seed  or  spore  is 
the  final  product  of  the  plant. 

19.  Every  plant, —  and  every  part  of  a  plant, —  under- 
goes vicissitudes.  It  has  to  adapt  itself  to  the  condi- 
tions in  which  it  lives.    It  contends  for  place  in  which  to 


^i 


6.  A  tree.    The  weeping  birch. 


THE     PLANT    AS    A    WHOLE 


grow,  and  for  air  and  light.     Its  life  is  eventfnl.     Every 
flant,  therefore,  has  a  history  and  a  story  to  tell. 

Review.  — Of  what 
parts  is  a  plant  com- 
posed? What  is  the 
axis?  What  parts  are 
borne  on  the  stem  ?  On 
the  root  ?  On  what  part 
are  the  most  highly  col- 
ored parts  found  ?  What 
direction  does  the  root 
take?  The  stem?  How 
are  plants  anchored  in 
the  soil?  In  what  order 
do  the  different  parts  ap- 
pear? What  is  meant  by 
the  life-history?  What  are  some  of  the  stages  or  events  in  the  life- 
history?  At  what  point  does  a  generation  begin?  When  end?  By  what 
means  does  the  next  generation  begin?  What  is  an  Annual?  Biennial? 
Perennial?  Herbaceous  perennial?  Pseud-annual?  Shrub?  Bush? 
Tree?  Give  three  examples  of  each  of  these  classes,  not  mentioning 
any  given  in  the  book.  What  is  a  plur-annual?  Why  are  no  two  parts 
or  plants  exactly  alike?  What  is  the  final  effort  of  every  plant?  Why 
is  the  life  of  a  plant  eventful? 

Note. — The  teacher  may  assign  each  pupil  to  one  plant  in  the 
school  yard,  field,  or  in  a  pot,  and  ask  him  to  bring  out  the  points  in 
the  lesson. 


There  are  no  two  branches  alike 


Wintertime  brings  out  the  framework  of  the  plants. 


CHAPTER   II 


THE  ROOT 


20.  THE  ROOT  SYSTEM.— The  offices  of  the  root  are  to 
hold  the  plant  in  place,  and  to  gather  food.  Not  all  the 
food  materials,  however,  are  gathered  by  the  roots. 

21.  The  entire  mass  of  roots  of  any  plant  is  called  its 
root  system.  The  root  system  may  be  annual,  biennial  or 
perennial,  herbaceous  or 
woody,  deep  or  shallow, 
large  or  small. 

22.  KINDS  OF  ROOTS.— 
A   strong    leading    central 
root,  which    runs    directly 
downwards,  is   a  tap-root. 
The  side  or  spreading  roots  are  usually 
smaller.      Plants  which  have  such  a 
root  system  are  said  to  be  tap -rooted. 
Examples  are  red  clover,  beet,  turnip, 
radish,  burdock,  dandelion.    Fig. 

23.  A  fibrous  root  system  is  one 
which  is  composed  of  many  nearly 
equal  slender  branches.  The  greater 
number  of  plants  have  fibrous  roots. 
Examples  are  many  common  grasses, 
wheat,  oats,  corn,  and  most  trees. 
The  buttercup  in  Fig.  2  has  a  fibrous 
root  system. 

24.  SHAPE  AND  EXTENT  OF  THE  ROOT  SYSTEM.  —  The 
depth  to  which  roots  extend  depends  on  the  kind  of  plant, 
and  the  nature  of   the  soil.      Of   most  plants  the  roots 

(7) 


8 


THE     KOOT 


9.   The  crooked  roots  exposed  where  the  soil   has 
been  washed  away. 


extend  far  in  all 
directions  and  lie 
comparatively  near 
the  surface.  The 
roots  usually  radi- 
ate from  a  common 
point  just  beneath 
the  surface  of  the 
ground 

25.  The  roots 
go  here  and  there 
in  search  of  food, 
often  extending 
much  farther  in  all 
directions  than  the  spread  of  the  top  of  the  plant.  Roots 
tend  to  spread  farther  in  poor  soil  than  in  rich  soil.  The 
root  has  no  snch  definite  form  as  the  stem  has.  Roots  are 
usually  very  crooked,  because  they  are  constantly  turned 
aside  by  obstacles.  Fig.  9.  Examine 
roots  in  stony  or  gravelly  soil. 

2G.  The  extent  of  root  surface  is  usu- 
allij  vert/  large,  for  the  feeding  roots 
are  fine  and  very 
numerous.  An 
ordinary  plant  of 
Indian  corn  may 
have  a  total  length 
of  root  (measured 
as  if  the  roots  were 
placed  end  to  end)  of  several  hundred  feet. 

27.  The  fine  feeding  roots  are  most  abun- 
dant in  the  richest  soil.    They  are  attracted  by 
the  food  materials.    Roots  often  will  completely 
,   .        surround  a  bone  or  other  morsel.     When  roots 

11.  Root-hairs 

of  the  radish,     of   trccs   are    exposed,   observe   that   most   of 


10.  The  bracing  buttresses  of 
a  field  pine. 


THE     ROOT -HAIRS 


9 


them   are  horizontal  and  lie  near  the  top  of  the  ground. 

Some  roots,  as  of  willows,  go  far  hi  search  of  water.    They 

often  run  into  wells  and  drains,  and  into 

the  margins  of  creeks  and  ponds.     Grow  ^, 

plants  in  a  long  narrow  box,  in  one  end  of 

which  the  soil  is  kept  very  dry  and  in  the 

other  moist:  observe  where  the  roots  grow.  _ 

28.  The  feeding  surface  of  the  roots  is 
near  their  ends.  As  the  roots  become 
old  and  hard,  they  serve  only  as  channels 
through  ivhich  food  passes  and  as  hold -fasts 
or  supports  for  the  plant.  The  root -hold 
of  a  plant  is  very  strong.  Slowly  pull  - 
upwards  on  some  plant,  and  note  how 
firmly  it  is  anchored  in  the  soil.  With  the 
increase  in  diameter,  the  upper  roots  often 
protrude  above  the  ground  and  become 
Iracwg  buttresses.  These  buttresses  are 
usually  largest  in  trees  which  always  have 
been  exposed  to  strong  winds.     Fig.  10. 

29.  THE  ROOT-HAIRS.— The  larger  part 
of  the  nourishment  gathered  by  the  root 
is  taken  in  through  root-hairs.  Fig.  11. 
These  are  very  delicate  x>rolonged  surface 
cells  of  the  roots.  They  are  borne  for  a 
short  distance  just  back  of  the  tip  of  the 
root. 

30.  The  root -hairs  are  very  small,  often 
invisible.  They,  and  the  young  roots,  are 
usually  broken  off  when  the  plant  is 
pulled  up.  They  are  best  seen  when 
seeds  are  germinated  between  layers  of  l^ji 
dark  blotting  paper  or  flannel.  On  the  i 
young  roots,  they  will  be  seen  as  a  mould-      ^--  '^''"*'^  ^°°^^  °^ 

•,.,  -.,  .  .^  trumpet  creeper 

like   or    gossamer  -  like    covering.      Root-         or  tecoma. 


, „.«,^_— vsv 


f^^"^* 


10 


THE     ROOT 


hairs  soon  die :    they  do  not  grow  into  roots.     New  ones 
form  as  the  root  grows. 

31.  AERIAL  ROOTS.— Although  most  roots  bury  them- 
selves in  the  soil,  there  are  some  which  grow  above  ground. 
These  usually  occur  on  climbing  plants,  the  roots  becoming 


13.   Aerial  roots  of  an  orchid. 


14.   Indian  com,  showing  the 
aerial  roots  at  oo. 


supports  or  fulfilling  the  office  of  tendrils.  These  aerial 
roots  usually  turn  away  from  the  light,  and  therefore  enter 
the  crevices  and  dark  places  of  the  wall  or  tree  over  which 
the  plant  climbs.  The  trumpet  creeper  (Fig.  12),  true  or 
English  ivy,  and  poison  ivy,  climb  by  means  of  roots. 

32.  In  some  plants,  all  the  roots  are  aerial;  that  is,  the 
plant  groivs  above  ground,  and  the  roots  gather  food  from 
the  air.     Such  plants  usually  grow  on  trees.     They  are 


fuvcriut:  severul  acres,      ludiu. 


12 


THE     ROOT 


known  as  epiphytes  or  air- plants  (Chapter  XIII).  The 
most  familiar  examples  are  some  of  the  tropical  orchids, 
which  are  grown  in  glasshouses.     Fig.  13. 

33.  Some  plants  throw 

out  aerial  roots,  which 
propagate  the  plant  or 
act  as  braces.  The 
roots  of  Indian  corn  are 
familiar.  Fig.  14.  Many 
ficus  trees,  as  the  banyan 
of  India  (Figs.  15,  16), 
send  out  roots  from  their 
branches  ;  when  these 
roots  reach  the  ground 
they  take  hold  and  be- 
come great  trunks,  thus 
spreading  the  top  of  the 
parent  tree  over  great 
areas  The  mangrove 
tree  (Fig.  17)  of  the 
tropics  grows  along  sea- 
shores and  sends  down 
roots  from  the  overhanging  branches  into  the  shallow 
water,  and  thereby  gradually  marches  into  the  sea.  The 
tangled  mass  behind  catches  the  drift,  and  soil  is  formed. 


Mangroves  marching  into  the  sea. 


Review.  — What  is  the  root  for?  What  is  a  root  system?  Define 
tap-root.  Fibrous  root.  What  determines  how  deep  the  root  may  go? 
How  far  does  the  root  spread  ?  Explain  what  form  the  root  sys- 
tem may  assume;  also  what  extent.  Where  are  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  fine  roots  found  ?  Where  is  the  feeding  surface  of  roots?  Of 
what  use  to  the  plant  are  the  old  woody  roots?  What  are  root- 
hairs?  What  do  they  do  and  what  becomes  of  them?  What  are  aerial 
roots?  Where  found  ?  What  are  epiphytes,  and  where  do  their 
roots  grow?  What  are  brace  roots?  How  do  the  banyan  and  man- 
grove spread  (aside  from  seeds)? 

Note. —  The  pupil  should  see  the  root-hairs.    A  week  before  this 


REVIEW 


13 


lesson  is  studied,  have  the  pupil  place  seeds  of  radish,  turnip  or  cab- 
bage between  folds  of  thick  cloth  or  blotting  paper.  Keep  the  cloth 
or  paper  moist  and  warm.  The  hairs  show  best  against  a  dark  back- 
ground. In  some  of  the  blotting  papers,  sprinkle  sand  :  observe  how 
the  root-hairs  cling  to  the  grains  (compare  Chapter  XI). 

The  pupil  also  should  study  the  root-hold  of  a  plant.  Let  him 
carefully  pull  up  a  plant.  If  a  plant  grow  alongside  a  fence  or  other 
rigid  object,  he  may  test  the  root-hold  by  securing  a  string  to  the 
plant,  letting  the  string  hang  over  the  fence  and  then  adding  weights 
to  the  string.  Will  a  stake  of  similar  size  to  the  plant  and  extending 
no  deeper  in  the  ground,  have  such  firm  hold  on  the  soil  ? 


Garden  along  the  scliool-yanl  fence,  wliere  pupils  may 
grow  the  plants  for  study 


CHAPTER   III 


THE   STEM 


34.  THE  STEM  SYSTEM.— The  stem  of  a  piaut  is  the 
part  which  hears  the  huds,  leaves,  flowers  and  fruits,  its, 
office  is  to  hold  these  parts  up  to  the  light  and  air ;  and 
throvigli  its  tissues  the  various  food -materials  and  the  life- 
giving  fluids  are  distributed  to 
the  growing  and  working  parts. 

35.  The  entire  mass  or  fabric 
of  stems  of  any  plant  is  called 
its  stem  system.  Figs.  4,  18 
The  stem  system  may  be  her- 
baceous or  woody,  annual,  bien- 
nial, or  perennial;  and  it  may 
assume  many  different  sizes  and 
shapes. 

36.  Stems  are  of  many  forms. 
The  general  way  in  which  a 
plant  grows  is  called  its  habit. 
The  habit  is  the  appearance  or 

Its  habit  may  be  open  or  loose,  dense,  straight, 
crooked,  compact,  straggling,  climbing,  erect,  weak,  strong, 
and  the  like.  The  roots  and  leaves  are  the  important 
functional  or  working  parts :  the  stem  merely  connects 
them,  and  its  form  is  exceedingly  variable. 

37.  KINDS  OF  STEMS.— T/ie  stem  may  be  so  short  as  to 
be  scarcely  distinguishable.  In  such  cases  the  crown  of  the 
plant  —  that  part  just  at  the  surface  of  the  ground — bears 
the  leaves  and  flowers;  but  this  crown  is  really  a  very  short 
stem.  The  dandelion,  Fig.  8,  is  an  example.  Such  plants 
(14) 


18.    Stem  system  of  an  apple  tree 
Deliquescent  trunk. 

looks. 


KINDS    OF    STEMS 


15 


are  often  said  to  be  stemless,  however,  in  order  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  plants  which  have  long  or  conspicuous 
5teras.  These  so-called  stemless  j>lants  die  to  the  ground 
every  year. 

38.  Stems  are  erect  when  they  grow  straight  up.  Figs. 
1,  2,  3.  They  are  trailing  or  creeping  when  they  run 
along  on  the  ground.  Fig.  19.  They  are  decumbent 
when  they  lop  over  to  the  ground.  They  are  ascending 
when  they  lie  mostly  or  in  part  on  the  ground  but  stand 
more  or  less  nprignt  at  their  ends.  They  are  climbing 
when  they  cling  to  other  objects  for  support.     Figs.  12,  20. 

39.  Trees  in  which  the  main  trunk  or  the  "leader" 
continues  to  grow  from  its  tip  are  said  to  be  excurrent  in 
growth.  The  branches  are  lorne  along  the  sides  of  the 
trunk,  as  in  common  pines  (Fig.  21)  and  spruces.  Excur- 
rent means  running  out  or  running  up. 

40.  Trees  in  which  the  main  trunk  does  not  continue 
are  said  to  be  deliquescent.     The  branches  arise  from  one 

common  point  or  from  each  other. 
The  stem  is  lost  in  the  branches.  The 
apple  tree  (Fig.  18),  maple,  elm,  oak, 
are  familiar  examples.  Deliquescent 
means  dissolving  or  melting  away. 
41.  Each  kind  of  plant  has  its 
own  peculiar 
habit  or  direc- 
tion of  growth. 
Spruces  always 
grow  to  a  single 
stem  or  trunk, 
pear  trees  are 
always  deliques- 
cent, morning-glories  are  always  climbing,  strawberries 
are  always  creeping.  We  do  not  know  why  each  plant 
has  its  own  habit ;    but  the  habit  is  in  some  way  asso- 


trailing  plant  ( AbroniaJ , 


16 


THE    STEM 


dated   tvith    the    plant's   genealogy    or   tvith   the    tvay    in 

which   it  has  been  ohliged  to  live. 

42.  The  stem  may  be  simple  or  branched.     A  simple 

stem    usually    grows   from    the    terminal    bud,    and   side 

branches  either  do 
not  start,  or,  if  they 
start,  they  soon  per- 
ish. Mulleins  (Fig. 
22)  are  usually  sim- 
ple.    So  are  palms. 

43.  Branched 
stems  may  he  of  very 
different  habit  and 
sha2)e.  Some  stem 
systems  are  narrow 
and  erect :  these  are 
said  to  be  strict. 
Others  are  dif- 
fuse, open,  branchy, 
twiggy. 

44.  STEMS  vs. 
ROOTS.  —  Roots 
sometimes  grow 
above  ground  (31- 
33) ;  so,  also,  stems 
sometimes  grow  un- 
derground, and  they  are  then  known  as  subterranean  stems, 
rhizomes,  or  rootstocks  (Fig.  23). 

45.  Stems  normally  bear  leaves  and  buds,  and  thereby 
are  they  distinguished  from  roots.  The  leaves,  however, 
may  be  reduced  to  mere  scales,  and  the  buds  beneath 
them  maybe  scarcely  visible.  Thus  the  "eyes"  on  an  Irish 
potato  are  cavities  with  a  bud  or  buds  at  the  bottom  (Fig. 
24).  Sweet  potatoes  have  no  evident  "eyes"  when  first 
dug  (but  they  may  develop  buds  before  the  next  growing- 


r;ipe  vine  climbing  on  a  tree, 
two  kinds  of  stems. 


HOW    STEMS    ELONGATE 


17 


season).      The  Irish  potato  is   a  stem:    the 
sweet  potato  is  probably  a  root. 

46.  HOW  STEMS  ELONGATE.— Eoo^s  elongate 
by  growing  near  the  tip.  Stems  elongate  by 
growing  more  or  less  throughout  the  young 
or  soft  part  or  "between  joints."  But  any 
part  of  the  stem  soon  reaches  a  limit  beyond 
which  it  cannot  grow,  or  becomes  "fixed;" 
and  the  new  parts  beyond 
elongate  until  they,  too, 
become  rigid.  When  a  part 
of  the  stem  once  becomes 
fixed  or  hard,  it  never  in- 
creases in  length:  that  is, 
the  trunk  or  woody  parts 
never  groiv  longer  or  higher; 
branches  do  not  become  far- 
ther apart  or  higher  from 
the  ground. 

47.  The  different  re- 
gions of  growth  in  stems 
and  roots  may  be  observed  in  seedling- 
plants.  Place  seeds  of  radish  or  cabbage 
between  layers  of  blotting-paper  or  thick  cloth.  Keep 
them  damp  and  warm.  When  stem  and  root  have  grown 
an  inch  and  a  half  long  each,  with  waterproof  ink 
mark  spaces  exactly  one -quarter  inch  apart.  Keep  the 
plantlets  moist  for  a  day  or  two,  and  it  will  be  found  that 
on  the  stem  some  or  all  of  the  marks  are  more  than  one- 
quarter  inch  apart ; 
on  the  root  the  marks 
have  not  separated. 
The  root  has  grown  ^.i 
beyond  the  last  mark . 
Figs.  25  and  26. 


.  01(1  mullein 
stalk,  with 
strict  habit  of 
growth. 


21.   Exeurreut  trunk. 
A  pine. 


18 


THE     STEM 


Eeview.  —  What  is  the  stem 
system  ?  What  does  the  stem  do  ? 
How  long  may  the  stem  persist  ? 
What  is  meant  by  the  habit  of  a 
plant?  Name  some  kinds  of  habit. 
What  are  so-called  stemless  plants? 
What  is  the  crown  ?  What  becomes 
of  the  tops  of  stemless  plants  ? 
What  are  erect,  trailing,  decum- 
bent, ascending,  climbing  stems? 
What  are  exeurrent  trunks?  Deli- 
quescent? What  is  a  simple  stem? 
What  are  strict  stems  ?  What 
are  subterranean 
stems  ?      How   are  " 

What  is  the  differ- 


stems  aistinguished  from  roots? 

ence  in  mode  of  growth  between  stems  and  roots? 

Note. — The  pupil  should  make  marks  with  water- 
proof ink  (as  Higgins'  ink  or  indelible  marking  ink) 
on  any  soft  growing  stems — as  geranium,  fuchsia, 
grass,  the  twigs  of  trees.  Note  that  the  separation  of 
the  marks  is  most  evident  on  the  youngest  shoots. 

The  pupil  should  observe  the  fact  that  a  stem  of 
a  plant  has  wonderful  strength.  Compare  tlie  pro- 
portionate height,  diameter  and  weight  of  a  grass  stem 
with  those  of  the  slen- 
derest tower  or  steeple. 
Which  has  the  greater 
strength  ?  Which  the 
greater  height  ?  Which 
will  withstand  the  most 
wind  ?  Note  that  the 
grass  stem  will  regain  its 
position  even  if  its  top 
is  bent  to  the  ground. 
Split  a  corn  stalk  and 
observe  how  the  joints 
are  tied  together  and 
braced  with  fibers.  Note 
how    plants    are  weight- 

ed    down    after    a   heavy  -''■  ^^^T  "J^''^'^^, 

''  of  the  stem  and 

rain-  root. 


26.   The  result. 


CHAPTER   IV 


PROPAGATION  BY  MEANS  OF  ROOTS  AND  STEMS 


48.  The  primary  office  of  roots  and  stems  is  to  support 
and  maintain  the  plant;  hut  these  parts  may  also  serve  to 
propagate  the  plant,  or  to  produce  new  individuals. 

49.  PROPAGATION  BY  MEANS  OF  RHIZOMES.— 0«e  office 
of  subterranean  stems  or  rhizomes  is  to  propagate  the  plant. 
Each  stem  has  a  bud  at  its  end,  and  from  this  bud  a 
shoot  arises.  By  the  dying  away  of  the  older  part  of 
the  rhizome,  this  shoot  becomes  a  separate  plant,  although 
the  rhizome  maintains  its  connection  for  years  in  some 
plants.     Shoots  may  also  arise  from  the  intermediate  or 

lateral  buds,  but  the  strongest  shoots  usually 
arise  from  the  end  or  near  the  end  of  the 
rhizome.     Fig.  23. 

50.  Each  successive  plant  is  farther  re- 
moved from  the  original  plant  or  the  start- 
ing-point of   the   colony.     Thus   the  colony 
or  "patch"  grows  larger.     Familiar  examples 
are  the  spreading  patches  of   mandrakes  or 
May    apples,    quack -grass,    Solomon's    seal, 
lily -of -the -valley,  ferns.     Cannas  propagate 
b}'  means  of  rhizomes  ;    so  does  ginger,  and 
the  "roots"  can   be   purchased   at    the   drug 
store.      Fig.  27  illustrates    the   spread   of   a 
colony  of  wild  sunflower.     On  the  right  the 
rhizomes    have    died    away  : 
note    the   frayed   ends.     On 
the  le^t,  the  strong  up-turned 
buds  show  where  the  shoots 
(19) 


27.   Creeping  rhizomes  of  wild  sunflower. 


20 


PROPAGATION  OF  ROOTS  AND  STEMS 


will  arise  next  spring.  The  old  stems  in  the  middle 
show  where  the  buds  were  at  the  close  of  the  last  season. 
Fig.   23  shows  one  of   the   terminal    buds. 

51.  When  rhizomes  are  cut  in  pieces,  each  piece  having 
at  least  one  hud  or  "e^e,"  the  pieces  may  grow  ivhen  planted. 
A  familiar  example  is  the  practice  of  dividing  tubers  of 
potato.  A  severed  piece  of  plant  designed  to  be  used  to 
propagate  the  plant  is  a  cutting.     See  Fig.  28. 


28.    Cuttings  of  eann.i  rhizome. 

52.  Cuttings  of  rhizomes  are  often  made  undesignedly 
or  accidentally  when  land  is  cultivated.  The  cultivator  or 
harrow  breaks  up  the  rhizomes  of  quack -grass,  Canada 
thistle,  toad  flax,  and  other  weeds,  and  scatters  them  over 
the  field. 

53.  PROPAGATION  BY  MEANS  OF  ROOTS.— Roots  some- 
times make  buds  and  throiv  up  shoots  or  new  plants. 
Severed  roots,  or  root  cuttings,  often  grow.  Blackberries, 
raspberries,  and  many  plums  and  cherries,  throw  up  shoots 
or  "  suckers "  from  the  roots ;    and  this  propensity  is  usu- 


CUTTINGS     AND     LAYEKS 


21 


ally  increased  when  the  roots  are  broken,  as  b}'  a  plow. 
Broken  roots  of  apples  often  sprout.  Plants  may  propa- 
gate by  means  of  root  cuttings. 

54.  The  buds  which  appear  on  roots  are  unusual  or 
abnormal, —  they  occur  only  occasionally  and  in  no  definite 
order.  Buds  appearing  in  unusual  places  on  any  part  of 
the  plant  are  called  adventitious  buds.  Such  are  the  buds 
which  arise  when  a  large  limb  is  cut  off,  and  from  which 
suckers  or  watersprouts  arise. 

55.  LAYERS. — Roots  sometimes  arise  from^  aerial  stems 
that  are  partially  huried.  If  a  branch  touches  the  ground 
and  takes  root,  it  is  called  a 
layer.  Gardeners  often  bend  a 
limb  to  the  ground  and  cover  it 
for  a  short  distance,  and  when 
roots  have  formed  on  the  cov- 
ered part,  the  branch  is  severed 
from  its  parent  and  an  inde- 
pendent plant  is  obtained.  See 
Fig.  29. 

56.  There  are  several  kinds  of 
layers:  a  creeper,  when  a  trail- 
ing shoot  takes  root  throughout 
its  entire  length ;  a  runner,  when 
the  shoot  trails  on  the  ground  and  takes  root  at  the 
joints,  as  the  strawberry;  a  stolon,  when  a  more  or  less 
strong  shoot  bends  over  and  takes  root,  as  the  black 
raspberry  or  the  dewberry  (Fig.  29) ;  an  offset,  when  a 
few  very  strong  plants  form  close  about  the  base  of  the 
parent,  particularly  in  succulent  or  bulbous  plants,  as 
house-leek  (old -hen -and -chickens)  and  some  lilies.  The 
rooting  branches  of  the  mangrove  and  banyan  (Figs. 
15,  17)  may  be  likened  to  layers. 

57.  NATURAL  CUTTINGS.  — Sometimes  cuttings  occur 
without  the  aid  of  man.      Some  kinds  of  willows  shed 


A  layer  of  dewberry.  The 
new  plant  has  arisen  at 
the  left. 


22       .  PROPAGATION  OF  ROOTS  AND  STEMS 

their  twigs,  or  the  storms  break  them  off :  many  of  these 
twigs  take  root  in  the  moist  earth  where  willows  grow,  and 
they  are  often  carried  down  the  streams  and  are  washed 
along  the  shoi-es  of  lakes.  Observe  the  willows  along  a 
brook,  and  determine  whether  any  of  them  may  liave  come 
down  the  stream. 

58.  PROPAGATION  BY  MEANS  OF  LEAVES.— Even  leaves 
may  take  root  and  give  rise  to  neiv  plants.  There  are 
examples  in  warm  countries.  The  lake -cress  of  northern 
streams  also  propagates  in  this  way:  the  leaves  with  little 
plants  attached  may  often  be  seen  floating  down  stream. 
Gardeners  propagate  some  kinds  of  begonias  by  means 
of  leaf  cuttings;    also  gloxinias  and  bryophyllums. 

59.  PROPAGATION  BY  MEANS  OF  BVDS.— Buds  often 

become  detached  and  j^ropagate  the  ])lant.      Familiar 

examples    are    the    bulblets    of    tiger    lilies,     borne 

amongst   the    foliage ;    for  all    bulblets    and 

bulbs  are  only  special  kinds  of  buds.    Fig.  30. 

Some  water  plants  make  heavy  winter  buds, 

which   become  detached  on  the  approach  of 

cold  weather  and   sink  to   the   bottom.      In 

*  spring,  they  give  rise  to  new  plants. 

60.  GRAFTS.  —  Sometimes  a  branch  may 
30.  Buibiet  of  unite  with  another  plant.  A  branch  or  a 
trunk  may  lie  against  another  plant  of  the 
same  kind,  or  of  a  very  closely  related  kind,  and  grow  fast 
to  it;  and  if  its  original  trunk  die  away,  the  part  will  be 
growing  on  an  alien  root.  A  branch  which  grotvs  fast 
to  a  branch  of  another  plant,  the  wood  of  the  two  knit- 
ting together,  is  called  a  graft.  Fig.  31.  It  is  necessary 
to  distinguish  between  a  graft  and  a  parasite:  a  parasite 
prej's  upon  another  plant,  robbing  it  of  its  food,  but  a 
graft  becomes  an  integral  part  of  the  stock  on  which  it 
grows,  and  does  its  full  work  in  elaborating  food  for 
itself  and  for  the  stock. 


REVIEW 


23 


Keview. — What  are  primary  and  sec- 
ondary offices  of  roots  and  stems?  What 
are  the  offices  of  rhizomes  ?  How  does 
propagation  by  rhizomes  proceed  ?  Why 
does  the  colony  spread  ?  Name  some 
plants  which  propagate  by  means  of  rhi- 
zomes. What  is  a  cutting?  May  cuttings 
be  made  of  rhizomes?  How  are  rhizom- 
atous  weeds  often  spread  ?  How  do  roots 
serve  to  propagate  the  plant?  Name  in- 
stances. What  are  adventitious  buds? 
What  is  a  layer?  Define  some  of  the 
kinds  of  layers, — runner,  creeper,  stolon, 
offset.  Explain  how  cuttings  may  occur 
without  the  aid  of  man.  How  may  leaves 
serve  to  propagate  the  plant?  Explain 
how  plants  propagate  themselves  by 
means  of  detachable  buds.  What  is  a 
graft?  How  may  grafting  take  place 
without  the  aid  of  man? 

Note. — If  there  is  an  accessible 
"patch"   of    toad-flax,    Canada    thistle, 

May  apple,  or  other  perennial  plant,  the  pupil  should  determine  by 
what  means  it  enlarges  from  year  to  year.  "Patches"  are  always 
instructive  when  considered  with  reference  to  propagation  and  dis- 
semination. 


31.  A  native  graft. 


i;oluuy  of   ilay  applt 


CHAPTER  V 

HOW    THE    HORTICULTURIST    PROPAGATES   PLANTS 
BY    MEANS    OF    ROOTS    AND    STEMS 

61.  CUTTINGS  IN  GENERAL.— A  hit  of  a  plant  stuck 
into  the  ground  stands  a  chance  of  groiving;  and  this  bit 
is  a  cutting.  (Compare  51.)  Plants  have  preferences, 
however,  as  to  the  kind  of  a  bit  which  shall  be  used, 
but  there  is  no  ivay  of  telling  what  this  preference  is 
except  by  trying.  In  some  instances  this  preference  has 
not  been  discovered,  and  we  say  that  the  plant  cannot 
be  propagated  by  cuttings. 

62.  Most  plants  prefer  that  the  cutting  be  made  of 
the  soft  or  growing  parts  (called  "wood"  by  gardeners), 
of  which  the  "slips"  of  geranium  and  coleus  are  examples. 
Others  grow  equally  well  from  cuttings  of  the  hard  or 
mature  parts  or  wood,  as  currant  and  grape  ;  and  in 
some  instances  this  mature  wood  may  be  of  roots,  as  in 
the  blackberry.  Pupils  should  make  cuttings  now  and 
then.  If  they  can  do  nothing  more,  they  can  make  cut- 
tings of  potato,  as  the  farmer  does  ;  and  they  can  plant 
them    in    a   box    in    the    window. 

63.  THE  SOFTWOOD  CUTTING.— The  softwood  cutting 
is  made  from  tissue  which  is  still  growing,  or  at  least 
from  that  which  is  not  dormant.  It  comprises  one  or 
two  joints,  with  a  leaf  attached.  Figs.  32,  33,  34.  It 
must  not  be  allowed  to  wilt.  Therefore,  it  must  be 
protected  from  direct  sunlight  and  dry  air  until  it  is 
irell  established;  and  if  it  has  many  leaves,  some  of  them 
should  be  removed,  or  at  least  cut  in  two,  in  order  to 
reduce  the  evo.Dorating  surface.     The  soil  should  be  uni- 

(24)  ,,^ 


THE     SOFTWOOD     CUTTING 


25 


forraly    moist.     The    pictures    show    the    depth    to    which 
the    cuttings    are    planted. 

64.  For  most  plants,  the  proper  age  or  maturity  of 
wood  for  the  making  of  cuttings  may  be  determined  by 
giving  the  twig  a  quick 
bend:  if  it  snaps  and  ^^ 
y  the  bark,  it  is 


cutting 


in  proper  condition  ;  if 
it  bends  tvithout  break- 
ing, it  is  too  young  and 
soft  or  too  old;  if  it 
splinters,  it  is  too  old 
and  woody.  The  tips  of 
strong  upright  shoots 
usually  make  the  best 
cuttings.  Preferably,  each  cutting  should  have  a  joint 
or  node  near  its  base  ;  and  if  the  internodes  (or  spaces 
between  joints)  are  very  short,  it  may  comprise  two  or 
three  joints. 

65.  The  stem  of  the  cutting  is  inserted  one -third  or  more 
its  length  in  clean  sand  or  gravel,  and  the  earth  is  pressed 
firmly  about  it.  A  newspaper  may  be  laid  over  the  bed 
to  exclude  the  light — if  the  sun  strikes  it — and  to  prevent 
too  rapid  evaporation.  The  soil 
should  be  moist  clear  through,  not 
on  top  only. 

66.  Loose  sandy  or  gravelly  soil 
is  used.  Mason's  sand  is  good 
earth  in  which  to  start  most  cut- 
tings ;  or  fine  gravel  —  sifted  of 
most  of  its  earthy  matter — may 
be  used.  Soils  are  avoided  which 
contain  much  decaying  organic  matter,  for  these  soils  are 
breeding  places  of  fungi,  which  attack  the  soft  cutting 
and  cause   it   to  "damp  off,"  or   to   die   at   or  near   the 


26 


ARTIFICIAL     PROPAGATION 


surface  of  the  ground.  If  the  cuttings  are  to  be  grown 
in  a  window,  put  three  or  four  inches  of  the  earth  in 
a  shallow  box  or  a  pan.  A  soap 
box  cut  in  two  lengthwise,  so  that 
it  makes  a  box  four  or  five  inches 
deep — like  a  gardener's  flat — is 
excellent.  Cuttings  of  common 
plants,  as  geranium,  coleus,  fuch- 
sia, carnation,  are  kept  at  a  living- 
room  temperature.  As  long  as  the 
cuttings  look  bright  and  green, 
they  are  in  good  condition.  It  maj^  be  a  month  before 
roots  form.  When  roots  have  formed,  the  plants  begin 
to  make  new  leaves  at  the  tip.  Then  they  may  be  trans- 
planted into  other  boxes  or  into  pots.  The  verbena  in 
Fig.  35  is  just  ready  for  transplanting. 

67.  It  is  not  always  easy  to  find  growing  shoots  from 


Verb.:nu  cutting  readj' 
for  transplanting 


which   to  make   the   cutting? 


30.  Old  geranium  plant  cut  back  to  make 
it  throw  out  shoots  from  which  cut- 
ting! can  be  made. 


The  best  practice,  in  that 
case,  is  to  cut  back  an 
old  plant,  then  keep  it 
irarm  and  ivell  ivatered,  and 
thereby  force  it  to  throiv  out 
neio  shoots.  The  old  geran- 
ium plant  from  the  win- 
dow-garden, or  the  one 
taken  up  from  the  lawn 
bed,  may  be  treated  this 
way.  See  Fig.  36.  The 
best  plants  of  geranium 
and  coleus  and  most  win- 
dow plants  are  those  which 
are  not  more  than  one  year 
old.  The  geranium  and 
fuchsia  cuttings  which  are 
made   in  January,    Febru- 


THE     GKAFT 


27 


ary,  or  March  tvill  give  compact  blooming  plants  for  the 
next  tvinter ;  and  thereafter  new  ones  take  their  places. 
Fig.  37. 

68.  THE  HARDWOOD  CUTTING.— Best  results  are  secured 
ivhen  the  cuttings  are  made  in  the  fall  and  then  buried 
until  spring  in  sand  in  the  cellar.  These  cuttings  are 
usually  6  to  10  inches  long.  They  are  not  idle  while  they 
rest.  The  lower  end  calluses  or  heals,  and  the  roots 
form  more  readily 
when  the  cutting 
is  planted  in  the 
spring.  But  if  the 
proper  season  has 
passed,  take  cut- 
tings at  any  time  in 
winter,  plant  them 
in  a  deep  box  in  the 
window, and  watch. 
They  will  need  no 
shading  or  special 
care.  Grape,  cur- 
rant, gooseberry 
and  poplar  readily 
take  root  from  the 

hardwood.     Fig    38  ^^'   ^^^^^  winter  geranium,  from  a  spring  cutting. 

shows  a  currant  cutting.  It  has  only  one  bud  above  the 
ground. 

69.  THE  GRAFT.— T^7ieM  the  cutting  is  inserted  in  a 
plant  rather  than  in  the  soil,  ive  have  a  graft ;  and  the 
graft  may  grow.  In  this  case  the  cutting  grows  fast 
to  the  other  plant,  and  the  two  become  one.  When  the 
cutting  is  inserted  in  a  plant,  it  is  no  longer  called  a 
cutting,  but  a  cion ;  and  the  plant  in  which  it  is  inserted 
is  called  the  stock.  Fruit  trees  are  grafted  in  order  that 
a  certain  variety  or  kind  may  he  perpetuated. 


28  ARTIFICIAL     PROPAGATlOxN 

70.  Plants  have  preferences  as  to  the  stocks  on  which 
they  will  grow  ;  hut  we  can  find  out  what  their  choice  is 
only  by  making  the  experiment.  The  pear  grows  well 
on  the  quince,  but  the  quince  does  not 
grow  so  well  on  the  pear.  The  pear  grows 
on  some  of  the  hawthorns,  but  it  is  an  un- 
willing subject  on  the  apple.  Tomato 
plants  will  grow  on  potato  plants  and 
potato  plants  on  tomato  plants.  When 
the  potato  is  the  root,  both  tomatoes  and 
potatoes  may  be  produced  ;  when  the  to- 
mato is  the  root,  neither  potatoes  nor 
tomatoes  will  be  produced.  Chestnut  will 
grow  on  some  kinds  of  oak. 

71.  The  forming,  growing  tissue  of  the 
stem  (on  the  plants  we  have  been  dis- 
cussing) is  the  cambium,  lying  on  the  out- 
side of  the  woody  cylinder,  beneath  the 
bark.  In  order  that  union  may  take  place, 
the  cambium  of  the  cion  and  of  the  stock 
must  come  together.  Therefore  the  cion 
is  set  in  the  side  of  the  stock.     There  are 

38.   Currant  cutting.  j?       i          •  .  i  ■  j        » 

many  ways  ot  shaping  the  cion  and  or 
preparing  the  stock  to  receive  it.  These  ways  are  dictated 
largely  by  the  relative  sizes  of  cion  and  stock,  although 
many  of  them  are  matters  of  mere  personal  preference. 
The  underlying  principles  are  two  :  securing  close  con- 
tact between  the  cambiums  of  cion  and  stock  ;  covering 
the  wounded  surfaces  to  prevent  evaporation  and  to 
protect  the  parts  from  disease. 

72.  On  large  stocks  the  commonest  form  of  grafting  is 
the  cleft-graft.  The  stock  is  cut  off  and  split;  and  in  one 
or  both  sides  a  wedge-shaped  cion  is  firmly  inserted. 
Fig.  39  shows  the  cion;  Fig.  40,  the  cions  set  in  the  stock; 
Fig.  41,  the  stock  waxed.     It  will  be  seen  that  the  lower 


THE     GRAFT 


29 


bud — that  lying  in  the  wedge — is  covered  by  the  wax;  but 
being  nearest  the  food  supply  and  least  exposed  to  weather, 
it  is  the  most  likely  to  grow  :  it  will  push  through  the 
wax. 

73.   Cleft -grafting  is  done  in  spring,  as  growth  begins. 
The  cions  are  cut  previously,  when  perfecthj  dormant,  and 


Cioii   of  apple.        40.   The  cioii  inserted. 


41.   The  parts  waxed. 


from  the  tree  which  it  is  desired  to  propagate.  The  cions 
are  kept  in  sand  or  moss  in  the  cellar.  Limbs  of  various 
sizes  may  be  cleft -grafted, — from  one -half  inch  up  to  four 
inches  in  diameter;  but  a  diameter  of  one  inch  is  the  most 
convenient  size.  All  the  leading  or  main  branches  of  a 
tree -top  may  be  grafted.  If  the  remaining  parts  of  the 
top  are  gradually  cut  away  and  the  cions  grow  well,  the 
entire  top  will  be  changed  over  to  the  new  variety. 

Review. — How  do  we  determine  how  a  plant  luay  be  propagated? 
Mention  any  plants  that  grow  from  cuttings.  What  are  softwood 
cuttings?  Hardwood?  Describe  a  geranium  cutting.  What  is  the 
proper  condition  of  wood  for  making  a  softwood  cutting?  How  is  it 
planted?  Where?  In  what  kind  of  soil?  Give  directions  for  water- 
ing.    How  may  cutting- wood  be  secured?     Describe  a  hardwood  cut- 


30 


AKTLFICIAL     PKOPAGATION 


ting.  When  is  it  made?  Name  plants  which  can  be  propagated  easily 
by  means  of  hardwood  cuttings.  Wnat  is  a  cion?  Stock?  How  do 
we  find  out  what  stocks  are  congenial  to  the  cion?  Describe  a  cleft- 
graft.     When   is  cleft-grafting  performed?     Why  do  we  graft? 

Note. — The  cutting-box  may  be  set  in  the  window.  If  the  box 
does  not  receive  direct  sunlight,  it  may  be  covered  with  a  pane  of 
glass  to  prevent  evaporation.  Take  care  that  the  air  is  not  kept 
too  close,  else  the  damping-off  fungi  may  attack  the  cuttings,  and 
they  will  rot  at  the  surface  of  the  ground.  See  that  the  pane  is 
raised  a  little  at  one  end  to  afford  ventilation ;  and  if  water  collects 
in  drops  on  the  under  side  of  the  glass,  remove  the  pane  for  a  time. 

Grafting  wax  is  made  of  beeswax,  resin,  and  tallow.  The  liands 
are  greased,  and  the  wax  is  then  worked  until  it  is  soft  enough  to 
spread.  For  the  little  grafting  which  any  pupil  would  do,  it  is 
better  to  buy  the  wax  of  a  seedsman.  However,  grafting  is  hardly  to 
be  recommended  as  a  general  school  diversion,  as  the  making  of  cut- 
tings is  ;  and  this  account  of  it  is  inserted  chiefly  to  satisfy  the 
general  curiosity  on  the  subject.  But  now  and  then  a  pupil  may 
make  the  effort  for  himself,  for  nothing  is  more  exciting  than  to 
make  a  graft  grow  all  bj'  one's  self. 

The  pictures  of  the  cuttings  (Figs.  32-3.'),  38)  and  the  grafts 
(Figs.  39-41)  are  one-third  natural  size. 


Cutting-bed,  showing  carnations  and  roses. 


CHAPTER  VI 

FOOD  RESERVOIRS 

74.  STOREHOUSES. — All  greathj  thickened  or  congested 
parts  are  reservoirs  for  the  storage  of  plant-food.  This 
food  is  mostly  starch.  Potatoes,  beets,  turnips,  thick 
rhizomes,  seeds,  are  examples.    Recall  how  potatoes  sprout 


42.   Potato  spi-uuls 


Tlie  sprouts  have  used  tlie  food  stored  in  the  tuber, 
and  the  tuber  has  shrivelled. 


in  the  cellar  (Fig.  42) :   the  sprouts  are  produced  from  the 
stored  food. 

75.   The  presence  of  starch  can  he  determined  by  apply- 
ing diluted  tincture  of  iodine   to    the  part:    if   a  blue  or 

(31) 


32 


FOOD     RESERVOIRS 


purplish  brown  color  appears,  starch  is  present.  Cut  the 
part  open  and  moisten  the  fresh  surface  with  iodine  (to 
be   had   at  the  drug  store).     The  test  will    usually  give 


43.   A  winter  branch  bearing  leaves  inside  a  window,  while  still 
attached  to  the  tree  outside. 


the    part   is    perfectly   dormant. 
11    nearly    all    twigs    in    fall    and 


the   best   reaction    when 

Starch    may   be   found    i 

winter.     Test  them. 

76.   This  stored  plant- food   enables  the  plant  to   start 

quickly  in  the  ^^ving,  without  tvaiting  for  full  root- action 
to  begin ;  and  it  enables  the  plantlet  in  the 
seed  to  groiv  until  it  establishes  itself  in  the 
soil.  The  flowers  of  early-blooming  trees  are 
developed  mostl}'  from  the  nourishment 
stored  in  the  twigs,  not  from  the  materials 
taken  in  at  the  time  by  the  roots.  This  can 
be  demonstrated  by  bringing  branches  of 
peach,  apple,  and  other  early  -  blooming 
plants  into  the  house  in  the  winter  and 
keeping  them  in  water;  they  will  bloom  and 
**■  ^'^ip"*"*"""     sometimes  even  make  leaves.    Study  Fig.  43. 


KINDS     OF     STOREHOUSES 


33 


45.   A  multiplier  oniou. 


77.  KINDS  OF  STOREHOUSES.— Short  and  much  thick- 
ened or  swollen  parts  of  roots  or  stems  are  known  as 
tubers.  These  may  be  stem  tubers,  as  the  potato,  or 
root  tubers,  as  the  sweet  po- 
tato (45).  Most  tubers  are  sub- 
terranean . 

78.  Many  tubers  are  stem  at 
the  top  and  root  in  the  remain- 
ing part:  these  are  called  crown 
tubers,  because  the  upper  part 
comes  to  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  or  is  a  crown.  Leaves 
and  stems  arise  from  the  upper 
part.  Beet,  radish,  parsnip, 
turnip,  salsify,  carrot,  dahlia 
roots,  are  examples.  These 
tubers  are  usually  much  longer 
than   broad,  and    generally    taper    downwards.      Fig.   44. 

79.  A  much  thickened  part  which  is  composed  of  scales 
or  plates  is  a  bulb.     The  bulb  may  be  scaly,  as  in  the 

lily;  or  it  may  be  tuni- 
cated, — made  up  of  plates 
or  layers  within  layers, 
as  the  onion. 

80.  Small  bulbs  which 
are  borne  amongst  the 
foliage  or  flowers  are 
known  as  bulblets.  Such 
are  the  "top  onions,"  and 
the  little  bulbs  which  the 
tiger  lily  (Fig.  30)  bears 
on  its  stem.  Bulbs  which 
grow  around  the  main  bulb  or  which  are  formed  by  the 
breaking  apart  of  the  main  bulb,  are  known  as  bulbels. 
Many  bulbous  plants  propagate  by  means  of  bulbels.     The 


46.    Section  of  a  multiplier  onion. 
Natural  size. 


34 


FOOD     RESERVOIRS 


multiplier  or  potato  onion 

(Fig.  45)   is    an    example. 

If  the  built   is   eut   across, 

it  is  found  to  have  two  or 

more    "hearts"     or     cores 

(Fig.    46).     When    it  has 

been  planted  a  week,  each 

core    or    part     begins     to 

separate     (Fig.    47),    and 

there   are    soon    as    many 

onions  as  there  are  cores. 

Potato      onions     can      be 

bought  of  seedsmen.    They 

are  used  for  the  raising  of 

early  onions. 

81.   Solid  bulb-like  parts  are  known  as  corms.     These 

usually   have    a  loose    covering,   but    the    interior  is  not 

made  up  of   scales  or  plates.     Of  such  are    gladiolus  and 

crocus  corms  (Figs.  48,  49).     Corms  multiply  by  cormels 


47.    Beginning  to  separate  into  its  parts 
Each  part  will  be  a  little  onion. 


48.   Corm  of  crocus.     Nat.  size. 


49.  Section  of  a  crocus  corm. 


or  small  corms,  as  bulbs  do  by  bulbels.  Fig.  GO  shows 
an  old  gladiolus  corm  on  which  three  new  corms  have 
grown. 

82.  We  have  seen  that  thickened  parts  may  serve  one 


USE     OF     THE     STORED     FOOD  35 

or  both  of  two  purposes  :  they  may  be  storehouses  for 
food;  they  may  be  means  of  propagating  the  plant. 
The  storage  of  food  carries  the  plant  over  a  dry  or  cold 
season.  By  making  bulbs  or  tubers,  the  plant  persists 
until  spring.  A  lunch  is  put  up 
for  a  future  day.  Most  bulbous 
plants  are  natives  of  dry  countries. 

Review. — What  do  j-ou  understand 
by  food  reservoirs?  How  is  the  presence 
of  starch  determined?  Where  may  starcli 
be  found  ?  Of  what  service  to  the  plant 
is  this  stored  food  ?  How  are  the  flow- 
ers and  leaves  enabled  to  start  so  early     ■'"■  Three  conns  growing  on 

a       r,   n         i    1  Tj      i    i.    V,  an  old  one.  — Oladiohis. 

in  spring  T      Define  tuber.     Root   tuber. 

Stem  tuber.  Crown  tuber.  Give  examples.  Define  bulb.  Scaly 
bulb.  Tunicated  bulb.  Bulblet.  Bulbel.  Give  examples.  Define 
corm.    Cormel.     What  two  purposes  do  congested  parts  serve  ? 

Note. —  The  pupil  should  examine  various  kinds  of  bulbs  and 
tubers.  If  these  are  not  at  hand,  many  kinds  can  be  bought  of 
seedsmen  or  florists.  Secure  onion,  narcissus,  hyacinth,  gladiolus, 
crocus,  potato.  Cut  them  in  two.  Study  the  make-up.  Test  them 
for  starch.  Plant  some  of  them  in  pots  or  boxes.  Observe  how  they 
grow.  In  the  onion  and  some  other  plants  most  of  the  stored  food 
is  sugar. 


i  kept  in  a  window. 


CHAPTER   VII 


WINTER  BUDS 


83.  WHAT  BUDS  ARE. —  Because  of  cold  or  dry  weather, 
the  plant  is  forced  into  a  period  of  inactivitj-.  We  have 
seen  that  it  stores  food,  and  is  ready  to  make  a  quick 
start  in  the  spring.  It  also  makes  embryo  branches  and 
packs  them  away  underneath  close-fitting  scales  :  these 
branchlets  and  their  coverings  are  winter  buds.  The 
growing  points  of  the  plant  are  at  rest  for  a  time.  In 
the  warm  season,  the  growing  point  is  active,  and  the 
covering  of  scales  is  not  so  pronounced.  A  ivinter  hud 
may  be  defined  as  a  resting  covered  growing  point. 

84.  A  dormant  hnd,  therefore,  is  a  shortened  axis  or 
branch,  bearing  miniature  leaves  or  flowers,  or  both,  and 
protected  by  a  covering.  Cut  in  two,  lengthwise,  a  bud  of 
the  horse-chestnut  or  other  plant  which  has  large  buds. 
With  a  pin,  separate  the  tiny  leaves.  Count  them.  Ex- 
amine the  big  bud  of  the  rhubarb 
as  it  lies  under  the  ground  in  winter 
or  early  spring.  Dissect  large  bud.s 
of  the  apple  and  pear.    Figs.  51,  52. 

85.   The  bud  is  protected  by  firm 

and  dry  scales  ;  but  these  scales  are 

only  modified  leaves.    The  scales  fit 

close.      Often  the  bud  is  protected 

by     varnish     (  see     horse  -  chestnut 

balsam     poplars).      Most     winter 

more     or     less     woolly.      Examine 

them  under  a  lens.     As  we  might  expect,  bud-coverings 

are  most   prominent  in  cold  and  dry  climates. 

(36) 


51. 
Bud  of    apri- 
cot showing 
the     minia- 
ture leaves. 


and 
buds 


the 
are 


WHEKE    BUDS    ARE 


37 


53.    Leaf-sc;ii> 
Ailanthus. 


or  54.  Termi- 
nal bud 
betw  e  e  n 
two  other 
buds  .— 
Currant. 


86.  WHERE  BUDS  ARE. — Buds  (ire  borne  in  the  axils 
of  the  leaves, — in  the  acute  angle  which  the  leaf  makes 
with  the  stem.  When  the  leaf  is 
growing  in  the  summer,  a  bud  is 
forming  above  it.  When  the  leaf 
falls,  the  bud  remains,  and  a  scar 
marks  the  place  of  the  leaf.  Fig. 
53  shows  the  large  leaf -scars  of 
ailanthus.  Observe  those  on  the 
horse-chestnut,  maple,  apple,  pear, 
basswood,  or  any  tree  or  bush. 

87.  Sometimes  two  or  more 
buds  are  borne  in  one  axil  :  the 
extra  ones  are  accessory 
supernumerary  buds.  Observe 
them  in  the  Tartarian  honeysuckle 
(common  in  yards),  walnut,  but- 
ternut, red  maple,  honey  locust,  and  sometimes  in  the 
apricot  and  peach. 

88.  Shoots  of  many  plants  bear  a  bud  at  the  tip: 
this  is  a  terminal  bud.  It  continues  the  growth  of  the 
axis  in  a  direct  line.  Very  often  three  or  more  buds 
are  clustered  at  the  tip 
(Fig.  54) ;  and  in  this 
case  there  may  be  more 
buds  than  leaf -scars. 
Only  one  of  them,  how- 
ever, is  strictly  terminal. 

89.  Bulbs  and  cabbage 
heads  may  be  likened  to 
buds :  that  is,  they  are 
condensed  stems,  with 
scales  or  modified  leaves 
densely  overlapping  and  forming  a  rounded  body.  Fig. 
55.      They  differ   from  true  buds,    however,  in  the   fact 


55.   A  gigantic  bud.— Cabbage. 


38 


WINTEK     BUDS 


The  open- 
i  n  g    of 
the  pear 
bud  of  pear.        bud. 


Fruit- 


that  the}'  are  eoudeusations  of  main  stems  rather  than 
embryo  stems  borne  in  the  axils  of  leaves.  But  bulblets 
iji.  .,:^  may  be  scarcely  distinguish- 
^^^  able  from  buds  on  the  one 
^  hand  and  from  bulbs  on  the 
other.  Cut  a  cabbage  head  iia 
two  lengthwise,  and  see  what 
0    it  is  like. 

90.  WHAT  BUDS  DO.— A  hud 
is  a  growing  point.  In  the 
growing  season  it  is  small, 
and  persons  do  not  notice  it. 
In  the  winter  it  is  dormant 
and  wrapped  up  and  is  plainly 
seen  :  it  is  waiting.  All  hranvhes  spring  from 
buds. 

91.  All  winter  buds  give  rise  to  branches, 
not  to  leaves  alone  :  that  is,  the  leaves  are  borne 
on  the  lengthening  axis.  Sometimes  the  axis, 
or  branch,  remains  very  short,— so  short  that  it 

56.  Willow,     may  not  be  noticed.    Some- 

The"  pus- 
sies"  are     timcs      it      grows     Several 

pushing 

out,    and     teet  long. 

biacifbud^  92.    Whether  the 

scale   is 

ready    to     branch    grows     long 

fall    from 

the    base     or    uot    depends    on 

of  each. 

the  chance  it  has, 
—  position  on  the  plant,  soil, 
rainfall,  and  many  other  things. 
The  new  shoot  is  the  unfold- 
ing and  enlarging  of  the  tiny 
axis  and  leaves  which  we  saw 
in  the  bud.  Figs.  51,  52.  If 
the  conditions  are  congenial,  the  shoot  may  form  more 
leaves  than  were  tucked  away  in  the  bud,  but  commonly 


Growth   is 
progressing. 


HOW    BUDS    OPEN 


39 


Opening  of  the 
pear  bud. 


it  does  not.     The  length  of  the  shoot  usually  depends  more 
on  the  lengths  betireen  joints  than  on  the  mimber  of  leaves. 

93.  HOW  BUDS  OVEJU.— When  the  bud 
swells,  the  scales  are  pushed  apart,  the 
little  axis  elongates  and  pushes  out.  In 
most  plants,  the  outside  scales  fall  very 
soon,  leaving  a  little  ring  of  sears.  Notice 
peach,  apple,  plum,  willow,  and  other 
plants.  Fig.  56.  In  others,  all  the  scales 
grow   for  a   time,   as    in    the    pear.   Figs. 

57,  58.     In  other  plants,  the  in- 
ner bud-scales  become  green  and 

almost  leaf -like.     See  the  maple 

and   hickory.     Fig.  59   shows   a 

hickory  bud.     Two  weeks  later, 

the  young  shoot  had  pushed  out 

and  the  enlarged  scales  were  hanging  (Fig.  60). 
94.  Sometimes  floivers  come  out  of  the   buds. 

Leaves  may  or  may  not  accompany  the  flowers. 

We    saw  the  embryo  flowers   in  Fig.  52.      The 

bud  is  shown  again  in  Fig.  57.     In  Fig.  58  it  is 

opening.  In  Fig.  Gl  it  is 
more  advanced,  and  the  woolly  un- 
formed flowers  are  appearing.  In 
Fig.  C2  the  growth  is  more  advanced. 
In  Fig.  63  the  flowers  are  full  blown ; 
and  the  bees  have  found  them. 

95.  Buds  which  contain  or  pro- 
duce only  leaves  ai-e  leaf-buds.  Those 
which  contain  only  flowers  are  flower- 
buds  or  fruit-buds.     The  latter  occur 

on  peach,  almond,  apricot,  and  many  

very    early    spring-flowering     plants.       ''^^  ^^''■^'  '"  '""  ''"""i- 
Fig.  64.     The  single  flower  is  emerging  from  the  apricot 
bud  in   Fig.  65.      Those  which   contain  both  leaves  and 


40 


WINTER     BUDS 


flowers  are  mixed  buds,  as  in  pear,  apple,  and  most  late 
spring- flowering  plants. 

96.  Fruit-buds  are  usually  thicker 
or  stouter  thaii  leaf -buds.  They  are 
borne  in  different  positions  on  differ- 
ent plants.  In  some  plants 
(apple,  pear)  they  are  on  the 
ends  of  short  branches  or 
spurs  ;  in  others  (peach,  red 
maple)    they    are    along    the 


04.   Almond  flower— tlu 
sole  occupant  of  a  bud. 


65. 
The      open- 
ing  of  the 
flower-bud 
of  apricot. 


sides  of  the  last  year's 
growths.  In  Fig.  66  are 
shown  three  fruit -buds  and 
one  leaf -bud  on  E,  and  leaf- 

buds  on  A.      In  Fig.  67  a  fruit-bud  is  at  the  left,  and  a 

leaf-bud  at  the  right. 

97.    THE    "BURST    OF    SPRING" 

means  chiefly  the   opening   of    the 

buds.       Everything     was     made 

ready  the  fall  before.     The  embryo  "^M^M^  \M 

shoots     and    flowers     ivere     tucJced 

away,  and  the  food  was  stored.    The 

warm  rain  falls,  and  the  shutters 

open  and  the  sleepers  wake  :    the 

frogs  peep  and  the  birds  come. 

Review.  —  What  are  dormant  buds? 
What  are  they  for?  What  is  their  cover- 
ing? Where  are  they  borne?  When  are 
they  formed  ?  What  is  a  leaf -sear?  What 
are  accessory  buds?  What  other  name  is 
applied  to  them?  Define  terminal  bud. 
What  does  it  do?  What  are  bulbs  and 
cabbages?  How  do  they  differ  from 
buds?    What  do  buds  do?     From  what  do 

branches  arise?     To  what  do  winter  buds        ^^    t.    -^ ,    ,        ^  ,    r  v  ^ 

.      „      ,^.  ,  .  ,     ,,         ,,  66.    Fruit-buds  and  leaf- buds 

give  rise?     What  determines  whether  the  of  pear. 


WINTER    TWIGS    IN    THE    HOUSE 


41 


branch  shall  be  long  or  short?  Describe  the  opening  of  a  bud 
What  are  flower-buds?  Leaf-buds?  Mixed  buds?  How  may  fruit 
buds  be  distinguished  ?  What  is  the  "burst  of 
spring"? 

Note. —  It  is  easy  to  see  the  swelling  of 
the  buds  in  a  room  in  winter.  Secure  branches 
of  trees  and  shrubs,  two  to  three  feet  long,  and 
stand  them  in  vases  or  jars,  as  you  would  flow- 
ers. Renew  the  water  frequently  and  cut  oft" 
the  lower  ends  of  the  shoots  occasionally.  In  a 
week  or  two  the  buds  will  begin  to  swell.  Of 
red  maple,  peach,  apricot,  and  other  very  early- 
flowering  things,  flowers  may  be  obtained  in 
ten  to  twenty  days.     Try  it. 

The  shape,  size,  and  color  of  the  winter 
buds  are  different  in  every  kind  of  plant.  By 
the  buds  alone  botanists  are  often  able  to  dis- 
tinguish the  kinds  of  plants.  Even  such  similar 
plants  as  the  different  kinds  of  willows  have  good  bud  characters. 
The  study  of  the  kinds  of  buds  affords  excellent  training  of  the 
powers  of  observation. 


Fruit-bud  and  leaf-bud 
of  apple. 


J^AV, 


The  burst  of  spring  in  the  lilac. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
PLANTS  AND  SUNLIGHT 


98.  EACH  PLANT  LOOKS  FOR  LIGHT.— Green  plants  live 
only  in  sunlight,  direct  or  indirect,  Tlie  gradual  with- 
drawal of  light  tends  to  weaken  the  plant;    but  the  plant 

makes  an  effort  to  reach  the  light 
and  therefore  grows  towards  it.  The 
irJiole  habit  of  a  plant  may  he  chan<jed 
'  bij  its  2)osition  with  reference  to  sun- 
light. Select  two  similar  plants. 
Place  one  near  the  window  and 
the  other  far  from  it.  Watch  the 
behavior  from  day  to  day.  Fig. 
C8  sliows  a  fern  which  grew  near 

08.    Sullif'iriil  li';lit.  ^  i  i  •  i  ttt 

the  glass  in  a  conservatory  :  h  ig, 
69  shows  one  which  grew  on  the  floor  of  a  conservatory. 
Fig.  69  also  teaches  another  lesson,  which  is  to  be  ex- 
plained in  another  chapter  (Chapter  XXVI). 

99.  Plants  grow  towards  the  light.  The  most  vigor- 
ous branches,  as  a  rule,  are  those  which  receive  most  light. 
Climb  a  tree  and  observe  where  the  thriftiest  shoots  are; 
or  observe  any  bush. 

100.  When  plants  or  their 
parts  are  not  stiff  or  rigid,  they 
turn  towards  the  light  if  the  light 
comes  mostly  from  one  direction. 
The  geraniums  and  fuchsias  in 
the  window  are  turned  around 
occasionally  so  that  they  will  grow 
symmetrical.      Plant  radish  in  a 

(42) 


69.    In  need  of  light. 
Same  kind  of  fern  as  No.  68. 


EACH     BRANCH     LOOKS     FOR     LIGHT 


43 


pot  or  pan.  When  the  plants  are  three  or  four  inches 
high,  place  the  pan  in  a  tight  box  which  has  a  hole  on 
one  side.  The  next  day  it  will  look  like  those  in  Fig.  70. 
This  turning  towards  the  light  is  called  heliotropism 
(helios  is  Greek  for  "sun.") 

101.  Even  under  natural  con- 
ditions, 2)lants  become  misshapen 
or  unsymmetrical  if  the  light  comes 
mostly  from  one  direction.  On  the 
edge  of  a  forest,  the  branches 
reach  out  for  light  (Fig.  71) 
Trees  tend  to  grow  away  from  a 
building.  Branches  become  fixed 
in  their  position,  so  that  even 
in  winter  they  tell  of  the  search 

70.    Searching  for  li?ht.  f^j,    Jighj-    [Y\g.  72). 

102.  Some  plants  climh  other  plants  in  order  to  reach 
the  sunlight;  or  they  climh  rocks  and  buildings.  Notice 
that  the  vine  on  the  house  luxuriates  where  it  is  lightest. 
Climbing  plants  sometimes  choke  and  smother  the  plant 
on  which  they  climb.  This  they  may  do  by  throwing 
their  mantle  of  foliage  over  it,  and  smothering  it,  or  by 
sending  their  roots  into  its  trunk  and  robbing  it  of  food. 
Sometimes  they  do  both,  as  in  Fig.  74.  Every  plant  has 
a  story  to  tell  of  the  value  of  sunlight. 

103.  EACH  BRANCH  LOOKS  FOR  LIGHT.— The  plant  is 
made  up  of  branches.  There  is  a  struggle  amongst  the 
branches  for  sunlight.  We  have  seen  (Fig.  7)  that  no 
two  branches  are  alike  :  we  now  know  one  reason  why. 
Notice  that  the  small  branches  die  in  the  center  of  the 
tree.  Look  on  the  inside  of  a  pine,  spruce  or  other  dense 
tree.  Every  branch  has  a  story  to  tell  of  the  value  of 
sunlight. 

104.  EACH  LEAF  LOOKS  FOR  LIGHT.— Leaves  are  borne 
towards   the   ends   of    the   branches.     This   is   particu- 


44 


PLANTS    AND     SUNLIGHT 


larly  marked  when  the  struggle  is  severe.  If  the  out- 
side of  a  plant  is  densely  thatched  with  leaves,  the 
inside   will    be    found    to   be   comparatively   bare.     Con- 


71.   Branehes  of  the  cedar  reaching  for  light. 

trast  Figs.  75  and  76,  both  being  views  of  one  tree. 
We  know  the  tree  as  seen  in  Fig.  75  :  the  squirrel 
knows  it  as  seen  in  Fig.  76. 

105.    On  any  branch  in  a  very  thick -topped  tree   or 
bush,  leaves  of  equal  age  usually  tend  to  be  largest  where 


EACH     LEAF     LOOKS     FOE     LIGHT 


45 


the  light  is  best. 
Leaves  which  grow 
in  full  sunlight 
tend  to  persist  later 
in  the  fall  than 
those  which  grow 
in  poor  light  (Fig. 
77).  This  fact  is 
sometimes  ob- 
scured   because    the  ''''^'  '^^^  branches  have  grown  towards  the  light. 

outermost  leaves  are  most   exposed  to  autumn  winds. 

106.  Plants  which  start  in  cellars,  from  seeds,  bulbs, 
or  tubers,  grow  until  the  stored  food  is  exhausted  and 
then  die:  the  leaves  do  not  develop  to  full  size  in 
darkness.  Figs.  78  and  79  show  this.  Fig.  78  is  rhu- 
barb forced  in  a  cellar  for  the  winter  market;  Fig.  79 
is  a  plant  grown  out-of-doors.     Compare  Fig.  42. 

107.  The  position  or  direction  of  leaves  is  determined 

largely  by  exposure  to  sun- 
light. In  temperate  cli- 
mates, they  usually  hang 
in  such  a  way  that  they 
receive  the  greatest 
amount  of  light.  Ob- 
serve the  arrangement 
of  leaves  in  Fig.  80. 
One  leaf  shades  the  other 
to  the  least  possible  de- 
gree. If  the  plant  were 
placed  in  a  new  position 
with  reference  to  light, 
the  leaves  would  make 
an  effort  to  turn  their 
,.,  „    .,    ,  ,       .     ^,    ,  ,  blades.       Observe    the 

VJ.   Mantle  of  clematis.    The  leaves,  and  later 

the  flowers,  spread  themselves  to  the  light.       shiugle  -like  arrangement 


46 


PLANTS    AND    SUNLIGHT 


in  Fig.  75.  If  the  pupil  were  to  examine  tlie  leaves  on  the 
Norway  maple,  which  is  photographed  in  Fig.  75,  he  would 
find  that  leaves  Avhich  are  not  on  the  outside  lengthen 
their  leaf-stalks  in  order  to  get  the  light.  See  Fig.  144. 
Norwa}^  maple  is  common  on  lawns  and  roadsides. 

108.  We    have   seen    (84)    that   a   large    part   of    the 
leaves  of  any  one  year  are  packed  away  in  the  buds  of 

the  previous  winter. 
It  is  almost  impossi- 
ble that  these  leaves 
should  be  packed 
away  hit  or  miss. 
They  are  usnalhj  ar- 
ranged in  a  mathe- 
matical order.  We 
can  see  this  order 
when  the  shoot  has 
grown.  We  can  see 
it  by  studying  the 
buds  on  recent  shoots, 
since  there  was  a  leaf 
for  each  bud.  The 
leaves  (or  buds)  may 
be  opposite  each  other 
on  the  stem,  or  alter- 
nate.    Fig.  81. 

109.  When  leaves 
are  ojyposite,  the  j^it's 
nsuaUy  alternate  . 
That  is,  if  one  pair  stands  north  and  south,  the  next 
pair  stands  east  and  west.  See  the  box -elder  shoot,  on 
the  left  in  Fig.  81.  One  pair  does  not  shade  the  pair 
beneath.     The  leaves  are  in  four  vertical  ranks. 

110.   There  are  several  kinds  of  alternate  arrangement. 
In    the    elm   shoot    in  Fig.   81,   the    third   bud   is   verti- 


i 

^ 

w& 

^1 

^ 

^Hg^ 

V  ¥rm 

ftlMiiW-^l 

■5*^ 

^^1 

Wim 

11 

1 

if 

^f^ 

■%'^j^ 

nBtl'' 

^ 

■         N 

fcLfVi 

■.%,^ti 

fii 

^ 

y-'j-if 

^^m 

|if^''H 

n 

74.   A  climbing  fig  choking  a  palm. 


75.    Looking  at  the  top  of  a  Norway  maple.— As  the  bird  sees  it. 


76.    Looking  up  into  the  same  tree. — As  the  squirrel  se«8  it 


48 


PLANTS    AND    SUNLIGHT 


cally  above  the  first.  This  is  true, 
no  matter  which  bud  is  selected  as 
the  starting  point.  Draw  a  thread 
around  the  stem  until  the  two  buds 
are  joined.  Set  a  pin  at  each  bud. 
Observe  that  two  buds  are  passed 
(not  counting  the  last)  and  that 
the  thread  makes  one  circuit  of 
the  stem.  Representing  the  num- 
ber of  buds  by  a  denominator, 
and  the  number  of  circuits  bj'  a 
numerator,  we  have  the  fraction 
X,  ivhich  expresses  the  part  of  the 
circle  ivhich  lies  between  any  two 
buds.  That  is,  the  buds  are  one- 
half  of  360  degrees  apart,  or  ISO 
degrees.  Looking  endwise  at  the 
stem,  the  leaves  are  seen  to  be  2- 
Note  that  in  the  apple 
shoot  (Fig.  81,  right),  the  thread 
makes  two  circuits  and  five  buds  are  passed  :  two- fifths 
represents  the  divergence  between  the  buds.  The  leaves 
are  5-ranked. 


I.  A  miiiii      I  '  '  <'  ^niit 

the  leiives  hung  four  weeks 
longer  than  on  the  north  side,  yovilT-p/I 
because  of  more  sunlight  and  idUJieu. 
perhaps  more  food. 


78.   Rhubarb  growTi  in  the  dark.     The  leaf-blades  do  not  develop. 


PHYLLOTAXY 


49 


111.  Every  plant  has  its  own  arrangement  of  leaves. 
For  opposite  leaves,  see  maple,  box-elder,  ash,  lilac, 
honeysuckle,  mint,  fuchsia.  For  2-ranked  arrangement, 
see  all  grasses,  Indian  corn,  basswood,  elm.  For  3 -ranked 
arrangement,  see  all  sedges.  For  5-ranked  (which  is 
one  of  the  commonest),  see  apple,  cherry,  pear,  peach, 
pluir.  poplar,  wil- 
low. For  8- ranked,  ,^4^ 
see  holly,  osage 
orange.  More  com- 
plicated arrange- 
ments  occur  in 
bulbs,  house  leeks, 
and  other  condensed 
parts.  The  arrange- 
ment of  leaves  on  the 
stem  is  Icnown  as 
phyllotaxy  (literally 
"leaf  -  arrange- 
ment".) Make  out 
the  phyllotaxy  on 
any  plant. 

112.  In  some 
plants,  several  leaves 
occur  at  one  level, 
being  arranged  in  a 
circle  around  the  stem. 
ticillate  or  whorled. 
usually  narrow. 

113.  Although  a  definite  arrangement  of  leaves  is  the 
rule  in  most  plants,  it  is  subject  to  modification.  On 
shoots  which  receive  the  light  onl}^  from  one  side  or  which 
grow  in  difficult  positions,  the  arrangement  may  not  be 
definite.  Examine  shoots  which  grow  on  the  under  side 
of  dense  tree -tops  or  in  other  partially  lighted  positions. 


79.    Rhubarb  grown  in  the  light. 

Such  leaves  are  said   to  be  ver- 
Leaves    arranged    in   this  way  are 


50 


PLANTS    AND    SUNLIGHT 


80.    All  the  leaves  are  exposed 
to  light. 


114.  The  directiou  or  "hang" 
of  the  leaf  is  usually  fixed,  but 
there  are  some  leaves  ivMcli  change 
their  direciion  between  daylight 
and  darkness.  Thus,  leaves  cf 
clover  (Fig.  82),  bean,  locust,  aud 
many  related  plants,  "sleep"  at 
night;  also  oxalis.  It  is  not  a  sleep 
in  the  sense  in  which  animals  sleep, 
however ;  but  its  function  is  not 
well  understood. 

115.  Leaves  usually  expose  one 
particular    surface     to    the    light. 
This  is  because  their  internal  structure  is  such  that  light 
is  most  efficient  when  it  strikes  this  surface,  as  we  shall 

learn  later  on.  Sohie 
plants,  however, expose  both 
surfaces  to  the  light,  and 
their  leaves  stand  vertical. 
Others  endeavor  to  avoid 
the  intense  light  of  mid- 
day and  to  turn  in  the 
direction  of  least  light. 
Leaves  standing  edgewise 
are  said  to  exhibit  polar- 
ity. They  are  "compass 
plants"  if  they  point  north 
and  south.  The  famous 
compass  plant  or  silphium 
of  the  prairies  and  the 
wild  lettuce  are  examples 
of    plants    having    polar 

81.   Phyllotaxy  of  box-elder,  elm,  apple.  IcaVCS.        (Wild      IcttUCG 

[Lactuca  Scariolaj  is  a  common  piant  on  roadsides;  p.  356.) 
Every  leaf  has  a  story  to  tell  of  the  value  of  sunlight. 


THE  WINTER  BUDS  SHOW  EFFECT  OF  SUNLIGHT  5] 


Day  and  uight  positions  of 
the  clover  leaf. 

ally    start   first    in    spring. 


116.  WINTER  BUDS  SHOW  WHAT  HAS  BEEN  THE  EFFECT 
OF  SUNLIGHT. — Buds  are  borne  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves 
(86),  and  the  size  or  vigor  of  the  leaf  determines  to  a  large 
extent  the  size  of  the  bud. 
Notice  that,  in  most  instances, 
the  largest  buds  are  nearest  the 
tip  (Fig.  83).  If  the  largest 
,ones  are  not  near  the  tip,  there 
is  some  special  reason  for  it. 
Examine  the  shoots  on  trees 
and  bashes. 

117.  The  largest  huds  usu- 
and  the  branches  which  arise 
from  them  have  the  advantage  in  the  strnggle  for  exis- 
tence. Plants  tend  to  grow  most  vigoroushj  from  their 
ends.  Observe  that  only  the  terminal 
bud  grew  in  the  hickory  twig  in  Fig, 
60.  Every  bud  has  a  story  to  tell  of 
the  value  of  sunlight. 

Review. — What  is  the  relation  of  the  plant 
to  sunlight  ?     Does  its  form  ever  depend  on  its 
relation  to  light?    In  what  direction  do  the  tops 
of  plants  grow?     Where  are  the  most  vigorous 
branches?     What    is    heliotropism?      Why   are 
trees  sometimes  unsymmetrical?    Do  you  know 
any  instances  yourself  ?     What  is  one  way  in 
which  plants  profit  by  the  climbins'  habit  I     Is 
there   struggle   amongst    brancnes  ?      Explain. 
Where   are  leaves  borne  in  reference  to  light? 
Where   are    leaves   usually   largest  ?     Do    they 
develop    in    darkness  ?     Are    leaves   borne  di 
rectly  above    one  another?      How   may   leaves 
be  arranged?   Explain  what  phyllotaxy  is.    Are 
leaves  always  arranged  definitely?     Explain  the 
arrangement   in  some  plant  which  is  not   mentioned  in  this  lesson 
What  is  the    "sleep"    of  leaves?     Which   surface   of  the  leaf  is  ex 
posed  ?     What  are  compass  plants  ?      How  do  buds   show  what  the 
effect  of  sunlight  has  been?    What  buds  start  first  in  spring? 


83.     The  big  termina. 
buds.— Hickory. 


CHAPTER   IX 
STRUGGLE    FOR  EXISTENCE  AMONGST    THE    BRANCHES 

118.  NO  TWO  BRANCHES  ARE  ALIKE— Every  tu'uj  has  a 
history.  It  has  to  contend  for  air  and  sunlight,  and  a  place 
in  which  to  grow.  Its  size  and  shape,  therefore,  depend  on 
the  conditions  under  which  it  lives.  Observe  the  long, 
straight,  big-leaved  shoots  on  the  top  of  the  plant,  and 
the  short,  weak,  crooked  ones  on  the  inside  or  under  side. 

119.  There  is  struggle  for  existence  for  every  ttviq  and 
every  leaf.      Those  finding  the  best    conditions  live    and 


84.  The  struggle  for  life.— Mulberry  shoot. 

thrive  ;  those  finding  the  poorest  die.  The  weak  are 
overpowered  and  finally  perish  :  this  prunes  the  tree,  and 
tends  to  make  the  strong  the  stronger.  Observe  the 
competition  in  the  branch  photographed  in  Fig.  84.  Pick 
out  the  dead  twigs,  the  w^eak  ones,  the  strong  ones. 

120.  THE  BUDS  MAY  NOT  GROW.— There  is  not  room  in 
a  tree-top  for  all  the  buds  to  grow  into  branches.    Some  buds 
(52) 


THE    BUDS    MAY    NOT    GKOW 


53 


85.   The  branching  is  crooked 
and  irregular. 


are  suppressed.  Branches 
die.  So  it  comes  that 
branches  are  not  arranged 
regularly,  although  the 
buds  may  be.  In  the  Tar- 
tarian or  "tree"  honey- 
suckle the  buds  are  oppo- 
site ;  Fig.  85  shows  how 
the  branches  are. 

121.  The  results  of  the 
struggle  for  existence  in  the 
tree -top  can  be  expressed 
in  figures.  Consider  that 
every  bud  is  the  germ  or  starting  point  of  a  branch.  Ob- 
serve at  what  distances  apart 
the  buds  are  usually  borne  on 
any  plant,  and  estimate  the 
number  of  buds  which  the  plant 
has  borne:  count  the  number  of 
branches  which  the  tree  actually 
bears.  It  will  be  found  that  the 
number  of  buds  is  far  in  excess 
of  the  number  of  branches  :  the 
difference  between  the 
numbers  shows  how 
many  buds  or  branches 
have  failed.  Or,  count 
the  buds  on  any 
branch,  and  figure  up 
the  possibilities.  A 
branch  12  inches  long, 
for  instance,  has  10 
buds.  If  each  bud 
grows,  at  the  end  of 

86.   Scar*  of  tb«  dormant  buds.-WiUow,  the    Uext    SeaSOU    there 


54  STRUGGLE    AMONGST     BRANCHES 

will  be  10  branches,  each  of  which  may  have  10  buds. 
At  the  end  of  the  second  year  there  will  be  100  branches  ; 
at  the  end  of  the  third,  1,000.  Can  1,000  branches  be 
borne  on  a  4-year-old  branch  12  inches  long  ?  Or,  count 
the  old  bud  -  scars  on  the  branches  — for  the  places  of 
the  buds  persist  as  wrinMes  in  the  hark,  often  for  many 
years  (Fig.  86).  One  can  often  locate  these  bud-scars 
on  old  branches  with  his  eyes  closed  by  running  his  fingers 
over  the  bark. 

122.  Buds  which  fail  to  grow  are  called  dormant 
buds.  They  are  usually  the  weakest  ones, — those  ichich 
grew  in  the  most  uncongenial  conditions.  They  are  to- 
wards the  base  of  the  shoot.  We  have  seen  (117)  that  it 
is  the  terminal  or  uppermost  buds  which  are  most  likely 
to  grow.  The  dormant  buds  gradually  die.  They  may 
live  four  or  five  j-ears  on  some  plants.  If  the  other  buds 
or  branches  fail  or  are  injured,  they  may  grow,  but  usu- 
ally they  die. 

123.  Dormant  buds  must  not  be  confounded  with  ad- 
ventitious buds.  We  have  learned  (54)  that  adventitious 
buds  are  those  which  are  formed  at  unusual  times  or  j^laces, 
because  of  some  disturbance  of  the  part.  If  a  large  branch 
is  cut  off,  suckers  or  wjitersprouts  are  thrown  out  near  the 
wound  :  these  arise  from  buds  which  are  made  for  the  occa- 
sion. These  buds  did  not  exist  there.  In  many  countries 
it  is  a  custom  to  "pollard"  or  cut  off  the  tops  of  trees 
every  few  years  for  the  firewood ;  and  strong  adven- 
titious shoots  arise  along  the  trunk.     Fig.  87. 

124.  WHERE  THE  BRANCHES  GROW.— Because  new  shoots 
tend  to  arise  from  the  top  of  the  twigs,  the  branches  of 
most  trees  are  in  tiers  or  layers.  These  tiers  often  can 
be  traced  in  trees  50  and  100  ye.rs  old.  Try  it  in  any 
oak,  maple,  ash,  or  other  tree.  For  practice,  begin  with 
young,  vigorous  trees  (Figs.  88  and  89). 

125.  When  part   of  a   top   is   removed,  the  remaining 


87.     A  pollard  tree 

In  this  case,  m;ui  has  added  to  the  struggle  for  existence.     An  ash  tree  in  Algeria, 

The  ohoots  are  cut  for  forage. 


56 


STKUGGLE     AMONGST    BKANCHES 


branches  fill  the  space.     The  branches  are  attracted  by  the 
light  and  air,  and  grow  in  that  direction.     A  pruned  or 

injured  top  always  tends 
io  come  hack  to  equi- 
librium. 

126.  A  mangled  or 
hroJien  plant  tends  to 
regain  its  former  posi- 
tion. From  fallen  trees, 
upright  shoots  arise. 
In  Fig.  90  observe  the 
new  trunk  arising  from 
the  center  of  the  arch; 
see  that  the  main  trunk 
is  smaller  beyond  that 
point. 


Tiers  of 
branches  on 
young  tree. 


89.  Even  in  old  trees 
the  tiers  can  be 
traced. 


Review.— What  is  meant 
by  the  statement  that  every 
twig  has  a  history?  Upon 
what  does  the  shape  and  size  of  a  branch  depend  ?  Explain  what 
you  mean  by  the  struggle  for  existence.  Why  do  not  all  buds  grow? 
If  buds  are  arranged  in  mathematical  order,  why  are  not  branches? 
How  may  the  effect  of  struggle  for  existence  be  expressed  in 
figures?  Select  some  branch  and  explain.  Define  dormant  buds. 
Adventitious  buds.  Why  are  branches  in  tiers,  or  borne  at  intervals? 
How  do  plants  tend  to  re- 
gain their  form  and  posi- 
tion, when  injured  ? 

Note. — Let  the  pupil 
work  out  the  history  of 
some  branch.  It  is  better 
to  select  a  branch  which 
is  vigorous.  He  should 
first  determine,  if  the 
shoot  is  dormant,  how  . 
much  grew  the  previous 
season.  The  last  year's 
growth  bears  buda  on  the  90.  The  erect  bole  on  the  fallen  tnmk. 


95.   October  18th. 


58 


STKUGGLE     AMONGST     BRANCHES 


main  axis,  not  on  side  branches  ;  and  the  "ring"  (scars  of  bud-scales) 
marks  the  junction  between  the  different  years'  growth.  Notice  this 
ring  in  Fig.  83.  The  teacher  will  find  many  twigs  worked  out  in  "Les- 
sons with  Plants."  Figs.  91-95  show  an  actual  case.  These  drawings 
were  all  made  with  the  greatest  care  from  one  elm  twig.  The  twig 
(Fig.  91)  shows  three  years'  growths.  The  side  branch  is  evidently 
only  one  year  old,  for  it  did  not  arise  until  the  twig  which  bears  it 
was  one  year  old.  Note  that  only  one  of  the  buds  made  a  branch. 
There  are  five  blossom  buds.  Fig.  92  shows  the  twig  in  bloom. 
Fig.  93  shows  it  in  fruit  and  leaf.  Fig.  95  shows  the  net  result.  The 
side  branch  grew  from  a  to  s  and  made  two  blossom  buds.  The  tip 
of  the  main  shoot  (Fig.  91)  was  broken  in  a  storm.  The  two  buds 
next  in  succession  grew.  Each  made  flower  buds.  Observe  how 
many  buds  on  this  elm  shoot  have  failed. 


Crushed  by  storm,  the  tree  still  shoots  upward. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  FORMS  OF  PLANTS 

127.  Although  the  form  of  the  branch,  and  to  some 
extent  the  entire  plant,  is  determined  by  a  struggle  with 
the  conditions  in  which  it  grows,  nevertheless  each  lind 
of  plant  has  its  own  peculiar  habit  of  growth.     The  lum- 


96.    Diflferent  forms  of  trees. 

berman  distinguishes  the  kinds  of  trees  by  their  "looks," 
rather  than  by  their  leaves  or  flowers,  as  the  botanist 
does.  The  farmer  usually  does  the  same  with  his  culti- 
vated plants. 

128.  The  habit  of  a  plant  is  determined  by  its  size, 
general  style  or  direction  of  growth,  form 
of  head,  and  method  of  branching.  The 
general  style  or  stature  of  plants  has 
been  mentioned  in  Chapter  III — they  may 
be  erect,  strict,  creeping,  decumbent,  and 
the  like.  The  shape  of  the  top  or  head 
is  well  illustrated  in  trees.  Note  the 
general  effect  of  the  mass,  as  seen  at  a 
distance.  The  elm  is  vase-form  or 
round-headed  (Fig.  96,  which  is  cited 
again  to  teach  another  lesson,  p.  223).   So 

(59). 


07.   Round-headed  and 
fastlgiate  trees, 


60 


THE     FORMS     OF     PLANTS 


are  maple,  beech,  and  apple  trees.  The  Lombardy  poplar 
(Fig.  97)  is  columnar  or  fastigiate.     Young  spruces  and 

firs  are  conical.     Heads 

may  be  narrow,  wide, 
flat,  symmetrical,  irreg- 
ular or  broken. 

129.  The  general  leaf - 
age  or  furnishing  of  the 
top  is  different  for  each 
kind.  The  top  may  be 
dense  or  thin.  The  foli- 
age may  be  heavy,  light, 
large,  small.  Coujpare 
maples  and  elms,  apples 
and  peaches,  and  other 
trees. 

130.  The  trunk  or 
bole  of  the  tree  is  one 
of  its  most    conspicuous 

98.   The  uubranched  trunks  of  palms.  features.         ObsCrve      the 

strict  straight  trunk  of  the  palm  (Fig.  98),  and  the  fork- 
ing trunks  of  elms  and  maples.  Observe  that  no  two 
trees  have  trunks  which  '-  ^ 

are    quite    alike.        The  ' 

bark  is  different  for  each 
kind  of  jilant. 

131.  Plants  awaken 
certain  thoughts  or  feel- 
ings: they  are  said  to 
have  expression.  This 
expression  is  the  source 
of  much  of  our  pleasure 
in  them.  Trees  are 
particularly  expressive.  One  suggests  restfulness,  because 
of  its  deep  shady  top  ;   another  gaiety,  from  its  moving. 


The  plaut  form  m  Winter.— Russian  ihisile. 


EXPRESSIONS     OF     PLANTS 


61 


small,  light -colored  leaves  ;  another  heaviness,  from  its 
very  large,  dull  foliage;  another  strength ,  from  the  massive 
branches;  another  grace,  from  the  flowing  outline  or  flexile 
growth.  We  think  of  the  oak  as  strong,  the  willow  as 
lithe,    the   aspen    as    weak,    and    the    like.      Irregular  or 


*^^mM 


inn.    Tlie  many  trunks  of  an  old  olive  tree.     Italy. 


gnarly  trees  suggest  struggle.      If  all  plants,  or  even  all 
trees,  were  alike,  we  shonld  have  little  pleasure  in  them. 

132.  The  exjJression  of  a  plant  depends  to  some  extent 
on  the  character  of  the  shadows  in  the  top.  These 
shadows  (or  lights  and  shades)  are  best  seen  by  looking 
at  the  plant  when  the  sun  is  low  and  behind  the  observer. 


62 


THE     FORMS     OF     PLANTS 


Stand  at  some  distance.  Look  at  the  dark  places  in  the 
old  pasture  maple:  they  are  lumpy  and  irregular.  In  the 
pasture  beech  they  are  in  layers  or  strata.  The  shadows 
depend  mostly  on  the  method  of  branching.  Those  who 
take  photographs  know  how  the  "high  lights"  and  shadows 
develop  on  the  plate. 

133.   The    habit  of  a  plant   is  nsiially  most    apparent 


-^^^ 


101.   A  pear  tree  of  the  Kieffer  variety. 


102.   A  pear  tree  of  the  Hardy  variety. 


■when  it  is  leafless.  The  framework  is  then  revealed. 
Woody  plants  are  as  interesting  in  winter  as  in  summer. 
Observe  their  forms  as  outlined  against  the  sky — every 
one  diiferent  from  every  other.  Notice  the  plant  forms 
as  they  stand  in  the  snow.  Fig.  99.  How  do  stems  of 
the  pigweed  differ  from  those  of  burdock  and  grasses? 
Observe  how  the  different  plants  hold  snow  and  ice. 
134.   The  more  unusual  the  shape  of  any  tree  or  other 


INTEREST     IN     PLANT     FORMS 


63 


plant,  the  greater  is  our  interest  in  it,  because  our  curiosity 
is  awakened.  Some  unusual  circumstance  or  condition  has 
produced  the  abnormal  form.  Such  plants  should  be  pre- 
served whenever  possible.     Fig.  100. 

Review. — What  do  you  mean  by  the  statement  that  each  kind  of 
plant  has  its  own  habit  (36)?  How  do  plants  differ  in  habit?  Name 
some  of  the  forms  of  tree-tops.  How  may  plants  differ  in  the  furnish- 
ing of  the  top?  Is  the  trunk  charaeteristie?  Bark?  Bring  in  and 
describe  the  bark  of  three  kinds  of  trees.  What  is  the  expression  of 
a  tree?  What  are  some  of  the  expressions?  Explain  what  you  under- 
stand by  the  shadows  in  the  top.  On  what  do  the  shadows  chiefly 
depend?  What  is  there  to  see  in  plants  in  winter?  Why  are  we 
interested  in  plants  of  unusual  form?  Tell  how  any  two  trees  differ 
in  "looks." 

Note.— One  of  the  first  things  the  pupil  should  learn  about 
plants  is  to  see  them  as  a  whole.  He  should  get  the  feeling  of 
mass.  Then  he  should  endeavor  to  determine  why  the  mass  is  so 
and  so.  Trees  are  best  to  begin  on.  No  two  trees  are  alike.  How 
do  they  differ?  The  pupil  can  observe  as  he  comes  and  goes  from 
school.  An  orchard  of  different  kinds  of  fruits  shows  strong  con- 
trasts. Even  different  varieties  of  the  same  fruit  may  be  unlike  in 
habit.     This  is  especially  true  in  pears  (Figs,  101,  102). 


W  * 


A  bouey  locust  tree. 


CHAPTER   XI 


HOW  THE  PLANT  TAKES  IN  THE  SOIL  WATER 


135.  PLANT-FOOD. —  Having  learned  what  a  plant  is  and 
having  seen  it  as  a  whole,  we  may  now  inquire  how  it 
secures  food  with  which  to  live.  We  can  discuss  onl}^  the 
outlines  of  the  subject  here  :  the  pupil  may  consider  the 
question  again  when  he  takes  up  Part  HI.  The  plant 
obtains  food  materials  from  the  soil.  We  know  this  to 
be  true,  because  the  plant  dies  if  removed  from  the  soil. 
In  this  discussion,  we  use  the  word  food  to  designate  amj 
material  which  the  plant  talies  in  to  incorporate  ivith  its 
tissues  or  to  aid  in  promoting  its  vital  activities.  The  word 
is  sometimes  used  to  denote  only  some  of  the  products  (as 
starch)  which  the  plant  manufactures  from  the  raw  ma- 
terials, but  it  is  unfortunate  to  press  a  common-language 
word  into  such  technical  use. 

136.  ROOT  STRVCTTJRE.— Roots  divide 
into  the  thinnest  and  finest  fibrils : 
there  are  roots  and  there  are  rootlets. 
The  large,  fleshy  root  of  the  radish 
(Fig.  103)  terminates  in  a  common-sized 
root  to  which  little  rootlets  are  at- 
tached. Then  there  are  little  rootlets 
attached   to  the  fleshy  root  at  various 

>«^  places  near  the  base.     But  the  rootlets 
x-which    we    see    are    only    intermediary, 
and    there    are    numerous    3'et    smaller 
structures. 

137.  The  rootlets,  or  fine  divisions,  are  clothed  with  root- 
hairs  (29),  ivhich  are  very  delicate  structures.     Carefully 

(64) 


103.    Root  and  rootlets. 


ROOT     STRUCTURE  65 

germinate    radish    or    other    seed,    so    that     no    delicate 

parts  of  the  root  will  be  injured.     For  this  purpose,  place 

a  few  seeds  in  packing -moss  or  in  the  folds  of  cloth  or 

blotting  paper,  being  careful   to 

keep  them  moist.     In  a  few  days 

the  seed  has  germinated,  and  the 

root   has  grown   an   inch   or  two 

long.    Notice  that,  excepting  at  a 

distance    of   about   a   quarter   of 

;  an    inch  behind  the  tip,  the  root 

is    covered     with     minute    hairs 

,        '       (Figs.  11,  104).     They  are  actu- 

t  \  ally    hairs,    that    is,    root -hairs. 

I     Touch  them  and  they  collapse,  they  are 

^     so  delicate.     Dip  one  of  the  plants  in 

I  \     water,  and  when  removed  the  hairs  are 

''\     not  to  be  seen.     The  water  mats  them 

1     together  along  the  root  and  they  are  no 

longer  evident.     Root-hairs  usually  are 

*  destroyed  when  a  plant  is  pulled  out  of 

t .      — i^     the   soil,  be   it  done   ever   so   carefully. 

'..'...ii'm"'"  ■^ilnwi',','-''t'i'ie  They  cling  to  the  minute  particles  of 
covering  of  root-hairs.  ^qW  Under  a  microscopc,  observe  how 
they  are  flattened  when  they  come  in  contact  with  grains 
of  sand  (Chapter  II).  These  root-hairs  clothe  the  young 
rootlets,  and  a  great  amount  of  soil  is  thus  brought  into 
actual  contact  with  the  plant.  Root-hairs  are  not  young 
roots  :   they  soon  die. 

138.  The  rootlet  and  the  root-hair  differ.  The  rootlet 
is  a  solid,  connpact  structure.  The  root -hair  is  a  delicate 
tube  (Fig.  105),  tvithin  the  cell- tv all  of  which  is  contained 
living  matter  {protoplasm);  the  ivall  and  the  lining  mem- 
brane permit  water  and  substances  in  solution  to  pass 
in.  Being  long  and  tube-like,  these  root-hairs  are  espe- 
cially adapted  for  taking  iu  the  largest  quantity  of  solu- 


FOOD    FROM    THE    SOIL 


tions ;  and  the}' are  the  principal  means  by  which  plant- 
food  is  absorbed  from  the  soil,  although  the  surfaces  of 
the  rootlets  themselves  do  their  part.  Water-plants  do 
not  need  an  abundant  system  of  root-hairs,  and  such 
plants  depend  largely  on  their  rootlets. 

139.  OSMOSIS.— In  order  to  understand  how  the  water 
enters  the  root -hair,  it  is  necessary  that  we  study  the 
physical  process  known  as  os- 
mosis. A  salt  solution  sepa- 
rated by  a  memhrane  from 
ivater  absorbs  some  of  the  water 
and  increases  its  own  volume. 
First  dissolve  one  ounce  of 
saltpeter,  which  we  may  use  as 
a  fertilizer  solution,  in  one 
pint  of  water,  calling  this  so- 
lution No.  I.  For  use  in  ex- 
periments later  on,  also  dis- 
solve a  piece  of  saltpeter  not 
105.  Cross  section  of  root,  enlarged,    larger  tliau  a  peach  pit  (about 

showing  root-liairs.  .  i  \      •  i         j 

one -seventh  ounce)  in  about 
one  gallon  of  water,  calling  this  solution  No.  II.  Now  fill 
the  tube,  C  in  Fig.  106,  almost  full  of  the  strong  solution 
I,  and  tie  a  piece  of  animal  membrane  (hog's  bladder  is 
excellent  for  this  purpose)  over  the  large  mouth.  A  small 
funnel,  with  a  long  stem,  may  be  used  if  one  cannot  obtain 
a  tube  like  C.  Then  sink  the  tube,  bladder -part  down- 
wards, into  a  large  bottle,  A,  of  water  until  the  level  of 
liquid  in  the  tube  stands  at  the  same  height  as  that  in  the 
bottle.  The  tube  may  be  readily  secured  in  this  position 
by  passing  it  through  a  hole  in  the  cork  of  the  bottle. 
In  a  short  time,  we  notice  that  the  liquid  in  N  begins  to 
rise,  and  in  an  hour  or  so  it  stands  as  at  F,  say.  This 
is  an  important  result.  The  liquids  diffuse.  The  salt 
solution  diffuses   more   slowly  than   the   water.     If   water 


OSMOSIS 


67 


were  on  both  sides  of  the  membrane,  it  would  diffuse 
equally  both  wuys  and  there  would  be  no  rise  of  liquid. 
The  presence  of  salt  in  N  diminishes  the  amount  of  fluid 
passing  out,  and  more  water  comes  in  than  water  and 
salt  go  out;    hence  there  is  pressure  in  the  tube. 

140.  The  cell-sap  of  the  root -hair  absorbs  wafer  from  the 
soil  by  osmotic  action.  The  above  experiment  enables 
us  to  understand  how  the  countless 
little  root-hairs  act, —  each  one  like 
the  tube  N,  if  only  the  whole  surface 
of  the  tube  were  a  bladder  membrane, 
or  something  acting  similarly.  The 
soil  water  does  not  contain  much  of 
the  land's  fertility*  :  that  is,  it  is  a 
very  weak  solution.  The  active  little 
root- hair,  on  the  other  hand,  is  always 
tilled  with  cell -sap,  a  more  concen- 
trated solution :  hence  soil  water  must 
come  in,  and  along  with  it  come  also 
small  quantities  of  dissolved  food  h 
materials.  Some  of  these  materials 
may  be  fertilizers  which  have  been 
applied  to  the  land. 

141.  The  plant  absorbs  these  solu- 
tions as  long  as  they  are  used  for 
the  growth  of  the  plant.  The  salts 
which  are  dissolved  in  the  soil  water  ^^^-  t°  illustrate  osmosis 
diffuse  themselves  through  the  tiny  membrane  of  the 
root-hairs,  each  ingredient  tending  independently  to  be- 
come as  abundant  inside  the  root-hair  as  outside  in  the 
soil  water.  Once  inside  the  root-hair,  these  absorbed 
solutions  pass  on  to  root  and  stem  and  leaf,  to  be 
utilized  in  growth.  As  long  as  they  are  used,  how- 
ever, more  must  come  into  the  root -hairs,  in  order  to 
restore  the  equilibriuni.      Thus  those  snhsiance.s   which   are 


A- 


FOOD    FROM    THE    SOIL 


needed  must  come  in  as  long  as  the  land  can  furnish  them 
m  soluble  form.  Absorption  was  illustrated  before  by  an 
artificial  arrangement  because  the  root -hairs  are  so  small 
that  they  cannot  be  seen  readily.  But  all  parts  of  the 
root  can  absorb  some  water. 

142.  Fleshy  pieces  of  root  or  stem  will  absorb  water 
from  iveak  solutions  and  become  rigid;  in  strong  solutions 
such  fleshy  parts  ivill  give  up  their  water  and  become  flexi 
ble.  To  experiment  further  with  this  principle  of  absorp- 
tion, cut  several  slices  of  potato  tuber  about  one-eighth  of 
an  inch  in  thickness,  and  let  them  lie  in  the  air  half  an 
hour.  Place  a  few  of  these  slices  in  some  of  the  strong 
fertilizer  solution  I.  Place  similar  pieces  in  the  weak 
solution  II.  In  half  an  hour  or  more,  those  pieces  in  the 
weak  solution  will  be  very  rigid  or  stiff  (turgid).  They 
will  not  bend  readily  when  held  lengthwise  between  the 
Compare  these  slices  with  those  in  the  strong 
where  they  are  very  flexible  (flaccid).  This 
is  evidently  due  to  the  fact  that  those  in  the 
strong  brine  have  actually  lost  some  of  their  water.  So 
the  potato  tuber  could  take  in  soil  water  con- 
taining a  small  amount  of  food ;  but  if  the 
water  contained  much  food  material  the  potato 
would  actually  lose  some  of  the  water  which 
it  held. 

143.  These  experiments  not  only  demonstrate 
how  the  roots  absorb  water  containing  plant- 
food,  but  they  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  out- 
side solution  must  be  very  dilute  in  order  that 
water  may  be  absorbed  at  all.  The  root-hairs  ab- 
sorb water  which  has  dissolved  only  a  small  amount 
of  plant -food  from  the  richness  of  the  soil,  and 
not  from  such  rich  solutions  as  the  sap  of  the  plant  itself. 

]44.   The  plant  may  be  wilted,   and   even  killed   by  at- 
tempting  to  feed  it  food  solutions  which  are  too   strong. 


fingers. 

solution, 

bending 


107.  Killed  by 
too  strong 
food  solu- 
tion. 


ROOT-PRESSUKE 


The  plant 
thrives  in  a 
weak  solution. 


To  test  this  matter,  secure  a  young  radish  plant  (or  almost 
any  seedling  with  several  leaves)  and  insert  the  roots  into 
a  small  bottle  containing  some  of  the  saltpeter  solution  I, 
In  another  bottle  place  a  similar  plant  with 
some  of  the  weak  solution  II.  Support  the 
plant  in  the  mouth  of  the  bottle  with  cotton 
batting.  After  standing  for  a  few  hours  or 
less  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  leaves  of  the 
plant  in  the  strong  solution  begin  to  w41t,  as 
in  Fig,  107.  The  plant  in  the  weak  solu- 
tion, Fig.  108,  is  rigid  and  normal.  This 
further  indicates  that  the  growing  plant  is 
so  constituted  as  to  be  able  to  make  use  of 
very  dilute  solutions  only.  If  we  attempted 
to  feed  it  strong  fertilizer  solutions,  these 
strong  solutions,  instead  of  being  absorbed 
by  the  plant,  take  water  from  the  latter. 
causing  the  plant  to  tvilt. 

145,  The  farmer  or  gardener  knows  that  he  can  injure 
or  even  kill  his  plants  by  adding  too  much  plant-food. 
Everyone  recognizes  the  value  of  wood  ashes  as  a  ferti- 
lizer ;  but  no  one  would  dare  water  his  valuable  plants 
with  lye,  or  sow  his  choice  vegetable  seeds  on  an  ash 
bank,  however  well  it  might  be  watered.  If  there  is  a 
potted  plant  at  hand  which  is  of  no  value,  remove  some 
of  the  soil,  add  considerable  wood  ashes,  water  well, 
and  await  the  result ;  or  give  it  a  large  lump  of  nitrate 
of  soda. 

146.  ROOT-PRESSURE.— TAe  activity  of  the  root  in  absorb- 
ing water  gives  rise  to  considerable  force.  This  force  is 
known  as  root-pressure.  The  cause  of  this  pressure 
is  not  well  understood.  The  pressure  varies  in  different 
plants  and  in  the  same  plant  at  different  times.  To 
illustrate  root -pressure,  cut  off  a  strong -growing  small 
plant  near  the  ground.     By  means  of  a  bit  of  rubber  tube, 


70 


FOOD    FROM     THE     SOIL 


attach  a  glass  tube  with  a  bore  of  approximately  the  diam- 
eter of  the  stem.     Pour  in  a  little  water.     Observe  the  rise 
of  the  water  due  to  the  pressure  from  below  (Fig.  109). 
•     -         Some  plants  will  force  the  column  of  water 
several   feet.     The   water  ascends   chiefly  in 
ihe  young  wood,  not   between    the   bark  and 
41         wood,  as  commonly  supposed.     To  illustrate 
the  path  of   water-ascent,   insert  a  growing 
shoot  in  water  which  is  colored  with  eosin  : 
note  the  path  which  the  color  takes.      (Eosin 
dye    may    be   had    of   dealers  in    microscope 
supplies.     Common  aniline  may  answer  very 
well.) 

147.  HOW  THE  SOIL  HOLDS  MOISTURE.— The 
water  which  is  valuable  to  the  plant  is  not  the 
free    water,  but  the  thin  film  of  moisture 
ivMcli  adheres  to  each    little  particle   of  soil. 
The  finer  the  soil,   the    greater   the   number 
of  particles,  and  therefore  the  greater  is  the 
quantity  of  film  moisture  which  it  can  hold. 
This  moisture  surrounding   the   grains   may 
not   be  perceptible,  yet   the    plant   can 
use  it.     Root  absorption  may  continue  in 
a  soil  which  seems  to  he  dust  dry. 
f^L,  ^^^-  ^^^    ROOTS   NEED   AIR. —  Corn 

on  land  which  has  been  flooded  by  heavy 
rains  loses  its  green  color  and  turns 
yellow.  Besides  diluting  plant -food,  the 
water  drives  the  air  from  the  soil,  and 
this  suffocation  of  the  roots  is  very  soon 
109.  apparent  in  the  general  ill  health  of  the 

To  show  root-pressure,  ^j^^^  Stirring  or  tilling  the  soil  aerates 
it.  Water-plants  and  bog-plants  have  adapted  themselves 
to  their  particular  conditions.  They  either  get  their  air 
by  special  surface  roots,  or  from  the  water. 


PROPER    TEMPERATURE ROOTS     EXCRETE 


71 


149.  PROPER  TEMPERATURE.  — T/?e  root  must  l)f  warm 
in  order  to  perform  its  functions.  Should  the  soil  of  fields 
or  greenhouses  be  much  colder  than  the  air,  the  plant 
suffers.  When  in  a  warm  atmosphere,  or  in  a  dry  atmos- 
phere, plants  need  to  absorb  much  water  from  the  soil, 
and  the  roots  must  be  warm  if  the  root -hairs  are  to 
supply  the  water  as  rapidly  as  it  is  needed.  If  the  roots 
are  chilled,  the  plant  may  wilt  or  die.  Try  this  with  two 
potted  plants,  as  radish,  coleus,  tomato,  etc.  Put  one  pot 
in  a  dish  of  ice  water,  and  the  other  in  a  dish  of  warm 
water,  and  keep  them  in  a  warm  room. 
In  a  short  time  notice  how  stiff  and 
vigorous  is  the  one  whose  roots  are 
warm,  whereas  the  other  may  show 
signs  of  wilting. 

150.  ROOTS  EXCRETE.  —  The  plant 
not  only  absorbs  what  is  already  solu 
ble,  but  it  is  capable  of  rendering 
soluble  small  quantities  of  the  insoluble 
substances  present  in  the  soil,  and  ivhich 
may  be  needed  for  plant-food.  The 
plant  accomplishes  this  result  by 
means  of  substances  excreted  by  the 
roots.  These  substances  may  even  etch 
marble.  On  a  polished  marble  block, 
place  a  half-inch  of  sawdust  or  soil, 
in  which  plant  seeds.  After  the  plants 
have  attained  a  few  leaves,  turn  the 
mass  of  sawdust  over  and  observe  the 
prints  of  the  roots  on  the  marble. 
These  prints  will  be  very  faint.  An 
illustration  of  this  experiment  is  given  on  page  73.  Care- 
fully pull  up  a  young  seedling  which  is  growing  in  soft 
soil,  and  notice  how  tenaciously  the  soil  particles  are  held 
to   the  root  (Fig.   110). 


110.  The  rootlets  auil  root- 
hairs  cling  to  the  particles 
of  soil. 


72  FOOD     FROM     THE     SOIL 

151.  THE  FOOD  MATERIALS.— We  have  seen  that  all 
food  materials  must  he  in  solution  in  water  in  order  to  be 
taken  in  hij  the  roots.  Different  kinds  of  plants  require 
different  kinds  and  proportions  of  the  food  materials,  but 
ordinary  green  plants  are  supposed  to  require  at  least 
eleven  of  the  elementary  substances  in  order  to  live. 
These  are  : 

Carbon,  C.  Potassium,  K. 

Oxygen,  O.  Calcium,  Ca. 

Nitrogen,  N.  Magnesium,  Mg. 

Hydrogen,  H.  Phosphorus,  P. 

Sulfur,  S. 
Iron,  Fe. 

Chlorine,  CI.  (in  some 
plants) . 
All  these  elements  must  be  in  combinations,  not  in  their 
elemental  form,  in  order  to  be  absorbed  by  roots. 

152.  Usually  all  of  these  except  carbon  and  oxygen  are 
taken  in  only  through  the  roots.  Some  of  the  oxygen  is 
taken  in  by  the  roots  in  the  form  of  water  (which  is  H2O), 
and  in  other  compounds.  Some  carbon  is  probably  taken 
in  by  the  roots  in  the  form  of  carbonates,  btit  it  is  doubt- 
ful whether  this  source  of  carbon  is  important  to  the  plant. 
Water  is  not  only  a  carrier  of  plant-food:  it  is  itself  a 
plant-food,  for  some  of  it  is  used  in  the  building  up  of 
organic  materials.  The  seven  elements  in  the  right-hand 
column  are  called  the  mineral  elements:  they  remain  in 
the  ash,  when  the  plant  is  burned.  The  mineral  elements 
come  from  the  soil. 

153.  The  ash  is  a  small  part  of  the  total  weight  of 
the  plant.  In  a  corn  plant  of  the  roasting -ear  stage,  the 
ash  (what  remains  after  ordinary  burning)  is  about  1  per 
cent  of  the  total  substance. 

154.  Water  is  the  most  abundant  single  constituent 
or  substance  of  plants.    In  the  corn  plant  of  the  roasting- 


WATER    IN     THE     PLANT  73 

ear  stage,  about  80  per  cent  of  the  substance  is  water. 
A  fresh  turnip  is  over  90  per  cent  water.  Fresh  wood  of 
the  apple  contains  about  45  per  cent  of  water.  The  plant 
secures  its  water  from  the  soil. 

Review.— What  is  pi  ant- food  ?  Where  does  some  of  it  come 
from?  Describe  the  feeding  root.  Describe  root-hairs.  What  is 
their  function?  How  does  the  root-hair  differ  from  the  rootlet  ? 
What  is  osmosis?  Describe  the  experiment.  How  does  the  soil  water 
get  into  the  root-hair?  For  how  long  does  this  absorption  continue? 
Under  what  conditions  may  the  root-hair  lose  its  sap?  In  what  condi- 
tion must  the  soil  water  be  in  order  to  be  absorbed  ?  What  may  result 
if  the  food  solutions  are  too  strong?  Has  this  fact  any  interest  to  the 
plant-grower?  What  is  root-pressure?  How  is  the  water  held  in  the 
soil  when  it  is  most  valuable  to  the  plant?  How  are  plants  able  to 
live  in  dry  soil?  Why  do  roots  need  air?  How  do  they  get  it?  Describe 
what  effect  a  cold  soil  has  on  roots.  How  do  roots  secure  the  plant- 
food  in  the  soil  particles?  What  elements  are  necessary  to  plants? 
In  what  forms  must  these  elements  be  in  order  to  be  absorbed  by  the 
roots?  About  what  percentage  of  the  whole  substance  is  ash  ?  What 
is  the  most  abundant  constituent  in  plants?     Whence  does  it  come? 

Note. — Examine  soil  under  a  lens,  to  see  the  odd  and  miscel- 
laneous particles  of  which  it  is  composed. 

Not  all  kinds  of  plants  exhibit  strong  root -pressure.  The  grape 
vine  is  a  good  subject  to  show  it.  If  pot  plants  are  used,  choose  a 
well-rooted  one  with  a  straight  stem.  Coleus,  begonia  and  Impatiens 
Sultani  are  good  subjects.     These  can  be  had  at  greenhouses. 


Koot  eicretions  may  etch  a  marble  svirfaca. 


CHAPTER   XII 
THE  MAKING  OF  THE  LIVING  MATTER 

155.  SOURCES  OF  FOOD.— The  ordinary  green  plant  has 
but  two  sources  from  tvhich  to  obtain  food, — the  air  and  the 
soil.  When  a  plant  is  thoroughly  dried  in  an  oven,  the 
water  passes  off:  this  water  came  from,  the  soil  (154). 
The  remaining  part  is  called  the  dry  substance  or  dry- 
matter.  If  the  dry  matter  is  burned  in  an  ordinary  fire, 
only  the  ash  remains:  this  ash  came  from  the  soil  (152). 
The  part  which  passed  off  as  gas  in  the  burning  contained 
the  elements  which  came  from  the  air:  it  also  contained 
some  of  those  which  came  from  the  soil  —  all  those  (as 
nitrogen,  hydrogen,  chlorine)  which  are  transformed  into 
gases  by  the  heat  of  a  common  fire. 

156.  CARBON. — Carbon  enters  abundantly  into  the  com- 
position of  all  plants.  Note  what  happens  when  a  plant 
is  burned  without  free  access  of  air,  or  smothered,  as  in  a 
charcoal  pit.  A  mass  of  charcoal  remains,  almost  as  large 
as  the  body  of  the  plant.  Charcoal  is  almost  pure  carbon, 
the  ash  present  being  so  small  in  proportion  to  the  large 
amount  of  carbon  that  we  look  on  the  ash  as  an  im- 
purity. Half  or  more  of  the  dry  substance  of  a  tree 
is  carbon.  When  the  tree  is  charred  (or  incompletely 
burned),  the  carbon  remains  in  the  form  of  charcoal.  The 
carbon  goes  off  as  a  gas  when  the  plant  is  burned  in  air. 
It  does  not  go  off  alone,  but  in  combination  with  oxygen, 
and  in  the  form  called  carbon  cUoxid  gas,  COj. 

157.  The  green  plant  secures  its  carbon  from  the  air. 
In  other  words,  much  of  the  solid  matter  of  the  plant 
comes  from  one   of  the  gases.      By  volume  carbon  fliorid 

(74) 


CHLOROPHYLL  75 

forms  only  about  three -hundredths  of  1  j)er  cent  of  the  air. 
It  would  be  very  disastrous  to  animal  life,  however,  if  this 
percentage  were  much  increased,  for  it  excludes  the  life- 
giving  oxygen.  Carbon  dioxid  is  often  called  "foul -gas." 
It  may  accumulate  in  old  wells,  and  an  experienced  person 
will  not  descend  into  such  wells  until  they  have  been  tested 
with  a  torch.  If  the  air  in  the  well  will  not  support  com- 
bustion, that  is,  if  the  torch  is  extinguished,  it  usually 
means  that  carbon  dioxid  has  drained  into  the  place.  The 
air  of  a  closed  school -room  often  contains  far  too  much 
of  this  gas  along  with  little  solid  particles  of  waste  matters. 
Carbon  dioxid  is  often  known  as  carbonic  acid  gas. 

158.  APPROPRIATION  OF  THE  CARBOff.— The  carbon  di- 
oxid of  the  air  readily  diffuses  into  the  leaves  and  other 
green  parts  of  the  plant.  The  leaf  is  delicate  in  texture, 
and  often  the  air  can  enter  directly  into  the  leaf  tissues. 
There  are,  however,  special  inlets  provided  for  the  admis- 
sion of  gases  into  the  leaves  and  other  green  parts.  These 
inlets  consist  of  numerous  pores  (stomates  or  stomata), 
ivhich  are  esj^ecially  abundant  on  the  under  surface  of 
the  leaf.  The  apple  leaf  contains  about  one  hundred 
thousand  of  these  pores  to  each  square  inch  of  the  under 
surface.  Through  these  breathing  pores  the  outside  air 
enters  into  the  air-spaces  of  the  plant,  and  finally  into  the 
little  cells  containing  the  living  matter.  In  Part  III  these 
breathing  pores  will  be  studied. 

159.  CHLOROPHYLL.— TAe  green  color  of  leaves  is  due  to 
a  substance  called  chlorophyll.  Purchase  at  the  drug  store 
about  a  gill  of  wood  alcohol.  Secure  a  leaf  of  geranium, 
clover,  or  other  plant  which  has  been  exposed  to  sun- 
light for  a  few  hours  and,  after  dipping  it  for  a  minute 
in  boiling  water,  put  it  in  a  white  cup  with  sufficient 
alcohol  to  cover  the  leaf.  Place  the  cup  on  the  stove 
where  it  is  not  hot  enough  for  the  alcohol  to  take  fiie. 
After  ft  time  the  chlorophyll  is  dissolved  by  the  alcohol, 


76  THE     MAKING     OF     THE    LIVING     MATTER 

which  has  become  an  intense  green.  Save  this  leaf  for 
a  future  experiment.  Without  chlorophyll,  the  jAant  can 
not  appropriate  the  carbon  dioxid  of  the  air. 

160.  In  most  plants  this  chlorophyll  or  leaf -green 
is  scattered  throughout  the  green  tissues  in  little  oval 
bodies,  and  these  bodies  are  most  abundant  near  the  upper 
surface  of  the  leaf,  where  they  can  secure  the  greatest  amount 
of  light.  Without  this  green  coloring  matter,  there  would 
be  no  reason  for  the  large  flat  surfaces  which  the  leaves 
possess,  and  no  reason  for  the  fact  that  the  leaves  are 
borne  most  abundantly  at  the  ends  of  branches,  where  the 
light  is  most  available.  Plants  with  colored  leaves,  as 
coleus,  have  chlorophyll,  but  it  is  masked  by  other  color- 
ing matter.  This  other  coloring  matter  is  usually  soluble 
in  hot  water:  boil  a  coleus  leaf  and  notice  that  it  becomes 
green  and  the  water  becomes  colored. 

161.  Plants  groivn  in  darkness  are  yellow  and  slender, 
and  do  not  reach  inaturity.  Compare  the  potato  sprouts 
which  have  grown  from  a  tuber  lying  in  the  dark  cellar 
with  those  which  have  grown  normally  in  the  bright  light 
(Fig.  42).  The  shoots  have  reached  out  for  that  which 
they  cannot  find  ;  and  when  the  food  which  is  stored  in 
the  tuber  is  exhausted,  these  shoots  will  have  lived  useless 
lives.  A  plant  which  has  been  grown  in  darkness  from  the 
seed  will  soon  die,  although  for  a  time  the  little  seedling 
will  grow  very  tall  and  slender.  Light  favors  the  produc- 
tion of  chlorophyll .  Sometimes  chlorophyll  is  found  in 
buds  and  seeds,  but  it  is  probable  that  these  places  are  not 
perfectly  dark.  Notice  how  potato  tubers  develop  chloro- 
phyll, or  become  green,  when  exposed  to  light. 

162.  PHOTOSYNTHESIS.— Carbon  dioxid  is  absorbed  by 
the  leaf  during  sunlight,  and  oxygen  is  given  off.  We 
have  seen  (157)  that  carbon  dioxid  will  not  support  animal 
life.  Experiments  have  shown  that  carbon  dioxid  is  ab- 
sorbed and  that  oxygen  is   given  off  by  all  green  surfaces 


STARCH 


77 


of  -plants  during  the  hours  of  sunlight.  How  the  car- 
bon dioxid  which  is  thus  absorbed  may  be  used  as  food 
is  a  complex  question,  and  need  not  be  studied  here. 

163.  Chlorophyll  absorbs  the  energy  oj  t/ie  sun's  rays,  and 
the  energy  thus  obtained  is  used  by  the  living  matter  in  unit- 
ing the  carbon  dioxid  absorbed  from  the  air  with  some  of  the 
ivater  brought  up  by  the  roots.  The  process  by  ivhich  these 
compounds  are  united  is  a  complex  one,  but  the  ultimate  result 
usually  is  starch.  No  one  knows  all  the  details  of  this 
process ;   and  our  first  definite 

knowledge  of  the  product  be- 
gins when  starch  is  deposited 
in  the  leaves.  The  process  of 
using  the  carbon  dioxid  of 
the  air  has  been  known  as 
carbon -assimilation,  but  the 
term  now  most  used  is  photo- 
synthesis (from  Greek  words, 
meaning  light  and  to  put  to- 
gether) . 

164.  STARCH.— All  starch 
is  composed  of  carbon,  hydro- 
gen, and  oxygen  (C6H10O5). 
The  sugars  and  the  woody 
substances  are  very  similar  to 
it  in  composition.  All  these 
substances  are  called  carbo- 
hydrates. In  making  this 
starch  from  the  carbon  and 
oxygen  of  carbon  dioxid  and 
from  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
of  the  water,  there  is  a  sur- 
plus of  oxygen.  It  is  this  oxygen  which  is  given  off  into 
the  air.  To  test  the  giving  off  of  oxygen  by  day,  make  the 
experiment  illustrated  in  Fig.  Ill,     Under  a  funnel  in  a 


To   show  the  escape  of 
oxygen. 


78  THE     MAKING     OF     THE    LIVING     MATTER 

deep  gluNS  jar  containing  tVesli  spring  or  stream  water- 
place  fresh  pieces  of  the  common  water -weed  elodea  (or 
anacharis).  Invert  a  test  tube  over  the  stem  of  the  fun- 
nel. In  sunlight  bu})bles  of  oxygen  will  arise  and  collect 
in  the  test  tube.  When  a  sufficient  quantity  of  oxygen 
has  collected,  a  lighted  taper  inserted  in  the  tube  will  elow 

^ with   a   brighter  flame,   showing 

^1'''  ,         ^i'.ljlK^      , ,      the  presence  of  oxygen.     A  sim- 

^B^E^StBjii^'  pier  but  less  accurate  experiment 

c:^^^^^^^^  is  ^^  immerse  an  active  leaf  of  a 

-^H^hH^^  ^^'^ter  plant,   and  to  observe  the 

|BB^^-    ..  bubbles    which    arise.      From    a 

^^HjP^"'       JHmm§-      leaf  in  sunlight  the  bubbles  often 

^^Kf  ^^K"        arise  in  great  numbers;   but  from 

^^^^^^^^^^^^'  one  in  shadow,  the  bubbles  usu- 

"~^     -    ^"       ^  '  ally  are  comparatively  few.     Fig. 

U2.  To  show  that  a  leaf  may        112.     Somc  of  the  bubblcs  may 

give  off  oxygea.  |,g    ^j^jy    ^^^ ^    particularly    if 

marked  changes  in  temperature  occur.  Observe  the  bub- 
bles on  pond  scum  and  water  weeds  on  a  bright  day. 

165.  Starch  is  present  in  the  green  lecwes  of  plants  which 
have  been  exposed  to  sunlight;  tut  in  the  dark  no  starch  can 
be  formed  from  carbon  dioxid.  Apply  iodine  to  the  leaf 
from  which  the  chlorophyll  was  dissolved  in  a  previous 
experiment  (159).  Note  that  the  leaf  is  colored  purplish 
brown  throughout.  The  leaf  contains  starch  (75).  Se- 
cure a  leaf  from  a  plant  which  has  been  in  the  darkness 
for  about  two  days.  Dissolve  the  chlorophyll  as  before, 
and  attempt  to  stain  this  leaf  with  iodine.  No  purplish 
brown  color  is  produced. 

166.  The  starch  manufactured  in  the  leaf  may  he  entirely 
removed  during  darkness.  Secure  a  plant  which  has  been 
kept  in  darkness  for  twenty -four  hours  or  more.  Split 
a  small  cork  and  pin  the  two  halves  on  opposite  sides  of 
one  of  the  leaves,  as  shown  in  Fig.  113.     Place  the  plant 


DIGESTION 


79 


113.     Excluding    light 
from  part  of  a  leaf. 


114.   The  result. 


in  the  sunlight  again.  After  a  niorning  of  bright  sun- 
shine dissolve  the  chlorophyll  in  this  leaf  with  alcohol; 
then  stain  the  leaf  with  the  iodine.  Notice  that  the  leaf 
is  stained  deeply  in  all 
parts  except  in  that  part 
over  which  the  cork  was 
placed,  as  in  Fig.  114. 
There  is  no  starch  in  the 
covered  area. 

167.  Plants  or  parts 
of  plants  which  have  de- 
veloped no  chlorophyll  can 
form  no  starch.  Secure 
a  variegated  leaf  of  co- 
leu  s,  ribbon  grass,  gera- 
nium, or  of  any  plant  showing  both  white  and  green  areas. 
On  a  day  of  bright  sunshine  test  one  of  these  leaves 
by  the  alcohol  and  iodine  method  for  the  presence  of 
starch.  Observe  that  the  parts  devoid  of  green  color 
have  formed  no  starch.  However,  after  starch  has  once 
been  formed  in  the  leaves,  it  may  be  changed  into  solu- 
ble substances  and  removed  to  be  again  converted  into 
starch  in  other  parts  of  the  living  tissues. 

168.  DIGESTION. — Starch  is  in  the  form  of  insoluble  gran- 
ules. Whenever  the  material  is  carried  from  one  part  of  the 
plant  to  another  for  purposes  of  groivth  or  storage,  it  is 
made  soluble  before  it  can  be  transported.  When  this 
starchy  material  is  transferred  from  place  to  place,  it  is 
usually  changed  into  sugar  by  the  action  of  a  ferment. 
This  is  a  process  of  digestion.  It  is  much  like  the  change 
of  starchy  foods  to  sugary  foods  by  the  saliva. 

169 .  DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  DIGESTED  FOOD.— After  being 
changed  to  the  soluble  form,  this  material  is  ready  to  be 
used  in  growth,  either  in  the  leaf,  in  the  stem,  or  in  the 
roots.      With  other  luore  complex  products  it  is  then  r^'-- 


80  THE     MAKING     OF     THE    LIVING     MATTER 

tributed  throughout  all  of  the  growing  parts  of  the  plant ; 
and  when  passing  down  to  the  root  it  seems  to  pass  more 
readily  through  the  inner  bark,  in  plants  which  have  a  defi- 
nite bark.  This  gradual  downward  diffusion  of  materials 
suitable  for  growth  through  the  inner  bark  is  the  process 
referred  to  when  the  "descent  of  sap"  is  mentioned.  Starch 
and  other  products  are  often  stored  in  one  growing  season 
to  be  used  in  the  next  season  (Chapter  VI).  If  a  tree  is 
constricted  or  strangled  by  a  wire  around  its  trunk,  the 
digested  food  cannot  readily  pass  down  and  it  is  stored 
above  the  girdle,  causing  an  enlargement. 

170.  ASSIMILATION.— T/ie  food  from  the  air  and  that 
from  the  soil  unite  in  the  living  tissues  (see  photosyn- 
thesis, 162,  163).  The  sap  that  passes  upwards  from  the 
roots  in  the  growing  season  is  made  up  largely  of  the  soil- 
water  and  the  salts  which  have  been  absorbed  in  the  diluted 
solutions.  This  upward-moving  water  is  conducted  largely 
through  certain  tubular  cells  of  the  yoiDuj  wood.  These  cells 
are  never  continuous  tubes  from  root  to  leaf;  but  the  water 
passes  readily  from  one  cell  to  another  in  its  upward  course. 

171.  The  upward-moving  water  gradually-  passes  to  tlie 
growing  parts,  and  everywhere  in  the  living  tissues,  par- 
ticularly in  the  leaves,  it  meets  the  products  of  assimilation 
from  the  leafy  parts.  Under  the  influence  of  the  living 
matter  of  the  plant,  this  product  from  the  leaves  first 
forms  combinations  with  the  nitrogen.  A  substance  more 
complex  than  sugar  is  then  formed,  and  gradually  com- 
pounds are  formed  tvhich  contain  sulfur,  j^^iosphorus,  jwtas- 
sium,  and  other  elements,  until  finally  protoplasm  is  manu- 
factured. Protoplasm  is  the  living  matter  in  plants.  It  is 
in  the  cells,  and  is  usually  semi-fluid.  Starch  is  not  living 
matter.  The  complex  process  of  building  up  the  proto- 
plasm is  called  assimilation. 

172.  RESPIRATION. —  Plants  need  oxygen  for  respira- 
tion just  as  animals  do.    We  have  seen  that  plants  need  the 


RESPIKATION 


81 


carbon  dioxid  of  the  air.  To  most  plants  the  nitrogen  of 
the  air  is  inert,  and  serves  only  to  dilute  the  other  ele- 
ments; but  the  oxygen  is  necessary  for  all  life.  We  know 
that  all  animals  need  this  oxygen  in  order  to  breathe  or 
respire.  In  fact,  they  have  become  accustomed  to  it  in 
just  the  proportions  found  in  the  air;  and  this  is  now  best 
for  them.  When  animals  breathe  the  air  once  they  make 
it  foul,  because  they  use  some  of  the  oxygen  and  give  off 
carbon  dioxid.  Likewise,  all  living  parts  of  the  plant 
must  have  a  constant  supply  of  oxygen.  Roots  also  need 
it  (148). 

173.  The  oxygen  passes  into  the  air-spaces  and  into  the 
protoplasm,  entering  into  combinations  the  final  products  of 
which  are  carbon  dioxid  and  water.  The  air-spaces  may  be 
equal  in  bulk  to  the  tissues  (Fig.  115) .  As  a  result  of  the  use 
of  this  oxygen  alone  at  night,  plants  give  off  carbon  dioxid 
as  animals  do.  Plants  respire;  but  since  they  are  station- 
ary, and  more  or  less  

inactive,  they  do  not 
need  as  much  oxygen 
as  animals,  and  they 
do  not  give  off  so  much 
carbon  dioxid.  Dur- 
ing the  day  plants 
use  so  much  more 
carbon   dioxid    than 

OXVffen  that  thev  are  ^^^'  ^^^'''°"  "^  ^  l^at,  showing  llie  air-spaces.  Breatli- 
'     _   °  ,  "^  ing  pore  or  stoma  at  a.    The  palisade  cells  -which 

said  to  purify  the  air.  chiefly  contain  the  chlorophyll  are  at  6.     Epider- 

The    carbon     dioxid       ^^i  «eUs  at  c. 

which  plants  give  off  at  night  is  very  slight  in  compari- 
son with  that  given  off  by  animals;  so  that  a  few  plants 
in  a  sleeping  room  need  not  disturb  one  more  than  a  family 
of  mice.     Plants  usually  grow  most  rapidly  in  darkness. 

174.  TRANSPIRATION.— We  have  found  that  the  plant 
takes    its   food    from    the   soil    in   very   dilute   solutions. 


82  THE     MAKING     OF     THE    LIVING     MATTER 

Much  more  water  is  absorbed  by  the  roots  than  is  used  ia 
growth,  and  this  surplus  icater  is  given  off  from  the  leaves 
into  the  atmosphere  by  an  evaporation  process  known  as 
transpiration.  The  transpiration  takes  place  more  abun- 
dantly from  the  under  surfaces  of  leaves,  and  througrh  the 
pores  or  stomates.  It  has  been  found  that  a  sunflower 
plant  of  the  height  of  a  man.  during  an  active  period  of 


^^^^^1^^^ 

!H 

■^H 

^^^^K^^r 

i^^^^^^B 

^^r    '^ ' 

\^H 

y     ^^^1 

^^kfen^^^^a 

ijl^^^^^H 

{p;»»<!lf|'  ^^1 

^^^^^^^HUHnMll|H||l||  p , 

lyll^l 

116.  To  illustrate  transpiration. 

growth,  gives  off  more  than  a  quart  of  water  per  day.  A 
large  oak  tree  may  transpire  150  gallons  per  day  during  the 
summer.  For  every  ounce  of  dry  matter  produced,  it  is 
estimated  that  from  fifteen  to  twenty -five  pounds  of  water 
must  pass  through  the  plant.  Cut  off  a  succulent  shoot  of 
any  plant,  stick  the  end  of  it  through  a  hole  in  a  cork  and 
stand  it  in  a  small  bottle  of  water.  Invert  over  this  bottle 
a  large-mouthed  bottle  (as  a  fruit-jar),  and  notice  that  a 


TRANSPIRATION 


83 


mist  soon  accumulates  on  the  inside  of  the  glass.  In  time 
drops  of  water  form.  The  experiment  may  be  varied  as 
shown  in  Fig.  116.  Or  invert  the  fruit-jar  over  an  entire 
plant,  as  shown  in  Fig.  117,  taking 
care  to  cover  the  soil  with  oiled 
paper  or  rubber  cloth  to  prevent 
evaporation  from  the  soil.  Even 
in  winter  moisture  is  given  off  by 
leafless  twigs.  Cut  a  twig,  seal  the 
severed  end  with  wax,  and  allow 
the  twig  to  lie  several  days:  it 
shrivels.  There  must  he  some  up- 
ward movement  of  water  even  in 
winter,  else  plants  would  shrivel 
and  die. 

175.  When  the  roots  fail  to  sup- 
ply to  the  plant  sufficient  water  to 
equalize  that  transpired  by  the 
leaves,  the  plant  wilts.  Transpiration  from  the  leaves  and 
delicate  shoots  is  increased  by  all  of  the  conditions  which 
would  increase  evaporation,  such  as  higher  temperature,  dry 
air  or  wind.  The  breathing  pores  are  so  constructed  that 
they  open  and  close  with  the  varying  conditions  of  the 
atmosphere,  and  thereby  regulate  transpiration.  However, 
during  periods  of  drought  or  of  very  hot  weather,  and 
especially  during  a  hot  wind,  the  closing  of  these  stomates 
cannot  sufficiently  prevent  evaporation.  The  roots  may  be 
very  active  and  yet  fail  to  absorb  sufficient  moisture  to 
equalize  that  given  off  by  the  leaves.  The  plant  wilts. 
Any  injury  to  the  roots  or  even  chilling  them  (149)  may 
cause  the  plant  to  wilt.  On  a  hot,  dry  day  note  how  the 
leaves  of  corn  "roll"  towards  afternoon.  Early  the  fol- 
lowing morning  note  how  fresh  and  vigorous  the  same 
leaves  appear.  Water  is  also  forced  up  by  root-pressure 
(146).     Some  of   the    dew  on  the    grass  in  the  morning 


To  illustrate  transpiratioji. 


84  THE    MAKING    OF    THE    LIVING    MATTER 

may  be  the  water  forced  up  by  the  roots;    some  of  it  is 
the  condensed  vapor  of  the  air. 

176.  The  uHlting  of  a  plant  is  due  to  the  loss  of  water 
from  the  cells.  The  cell  walls  are  soft,  and  collapse. 
A  toy  balloon  will  not  stand  alone  until  it  is  inflated 
with  air  or  liquid.  In  the  woody  parts  of  the  plant  the 
cell  walls  may  be  stiff  enough  to  support  themselves,  even 
though  the  cell  is  empty.  Measure  the  contraction  due  to 
wilting  and  drying  by  tracing  a  fresh  leaf,  and  then  trac- 
ing the  same  leaf  after  it  has  been  dried  between  papers. 
The  softer  the  leaf,  the  greater  will  be  the  contraction. 

Eeview. — Whence  comes  the  food  of  plants?  What  is  meant  by 
the  dry  substance?  What  is  charcoal?  How  is  it  obtained?  How 
much  of  the  dry  substance  is  carbon?  What  becomes  of  it  when 
the  plant  is  burned  in  air?  Whence  conies  the  carbon?  What  is 
carbon  dioxid?  How  abundant  is  it  in  the  air?  How  does  the  CO2 
get  into  the  leaf?  What  is  chlorophyll?  What  function  has  it? 
Where  are  the  chlorophyll  bodies  located?  What  relation  has  light 
to  chlorophyll?  When  is  CO2  absorbed?  What  is  formed  after  CO2 
is  taken  in?  Define  photosynthesis.  What  is  starch?  What  is 
given  off  when  starch  is  made  by  photosynthesis?  In  what  part  of 
the  plant  is  starch  first  made?  When?  What  are  carbohydrates  ? 
What  is  digestion  of  starch?  How  is  the  digested  food  distributed? 
Explain  assimilation.  What  is  the  product  of  assimilation?  Explain 
respiration.  When  are  O  and  CO2  given  off?  Define  transpiration. 
Why  do  plants  wilt? 


All  egg-sheil  farm  for  the  pupil's  desK. 


CHAPTER   XIII 


DEPENDENT    PLANTS 


177.  DEPENDENT  AND  INDEPENDENT  PLANTS.— Plants 
with  roots  and  foliage  usually  depend  on  themselves.  They 
collect  the  raw  materials  and  make  them  over  into  assimil- 
able food.  They  are  independent.  Plants  without  green 
foliage  cannot  make  food:  they  must  have  it  made  for  them 
or  they  die.  They  are  dependent. 
The  potato  sprout  (Fig.  42)  cannot 
collect  and  elaborate  carbon  dioxid. 
It  lives  on  the  food  stored  in  the 
tuber. 

178.  All  plants  with  natumlhj 
white  or  blanched  parts  are  dependent. 
Their  leaves  do  not  develop.  They 
live  on  organic  matter  — that  which 
has  been  made  by  a  plant  or  an  ani- 
mal. The  Indian  pipe,  aphyllon 
(Fig.  118),  beech  drop,  coral  root 
(Fig.  119)  among  flower -producing 
plants,  also  mushrooms  and  other 
fungi  (Figs.  120,  121)  are  examples. 

179.  PARASITES  AND  SAPROPHYTES 
— A  plant  which  is  dependent  on  a 
living  plant  or  animal  is  a  parasite, 
and  the  plant  or  animal  on  which  it 
lives  is  the  host.  The  dodder  is  a 
true  parasite.  So  are  the  rusts  and 
mildews  which  attack  leaves  and 
shoots  and  injure  them. 

(85) 


118.  A  parasite,  growing  in 
woods.—  Aphyllon.  It  ii 
in  bloom. 


86 


DEPENDENT     PLANTS 


0.  A  mushroom,  exam- 
ple of  a  saprophytic 
plant. 


180.  The  threads  of  the  parasitic  fungus  usually  creep 
through  the  intercellular  spaces  in  the  leaf  or  stem  and 
send  suckers  (or  haustoria)  into  the  cells 
(Fig.  122).  These  threads  (or  hyphse) 
clog  the  breathing  spaces  of 
the  leaf  and  often  plug  the 
stomata,  and  they  also  appro- 
priate and  disorganize  the 
cell  fluids  :  thus  they  injure 
or  kill  their  host.  The  mass 
of  hyphae  of  a  fungus  is  called 
mycelium.  Some  of  the 
hypha?  finally  grow  out  of 
the  leaf  and  produce  spores  or  reproductive  cells 
which  answer  the  purpose  of  seeds  in  distribu- 
ting the  plant  (b,  Fig.  122). 

181.  A  plant  which  lives  on  dead  or  decaying 
matter  is  a  saprophyte.  Mushrooms  are  ex- 
amples: they  live  on  the  decaying  matter  in 
the  soil.  Mould  on  bread  and  cheese  is  an 
example.  Lay  a  piece  of  moist  bread  on  a  plate 
and  invert  a  tumbler  over  it.  In  a  few  days  it 
will  be  mouldy.  The  spores  were  in  the  air,  or 
perhaps  they  had  already  fallen  on  the  bread 
but  had  not  had  opportunity  to  grow.  Most 
plants  are  able  to  make  use  of  the  humus  or 
vegetable  mould  in  the  soil,  and  to  that  extent 
might  be  called  saprophytic. 

182.  Some  parasites  spring  from 
the  ground  (Figs.  118,  119),  as 
other  plants  do,  but  they  are  para- 
sitic on  the  roots  of  their  hosts. 
Some  parasites  may  be  partially 
parasitic  and   partially  saprophytic. 

119.   CoraUorhiza  or  coral-root,    \'  '^  \       -     T 

showing  the  mycorrhiias.      Many  (pcrhaps  most)  of  these  root- 


PARASITES     AND     SAPROPHYTES 


87 


saprophytes  are  aided  iu  securing  their  food  by  soil  fungi, 
which  spread  their  delicate  threads  over  the  root -like 
branches  of  the  plant  and  act  as  intermediaries  be- 
tween the  food  and  the  saprophyte.  The  roots  of  the 
coral -root  (Fig.  119)  are  covered  with  this  fungus,  and 
the  roots  have  practically  lost  the  power  of  absorbing 
food  direct.  These  fungous-covered  roots  are  known  as 
mycorrhizas  (meaning ''fungus  root")-  Mycorrhizas  are 
not  peculiar  to  saprophytes.  They  are  found  on  many 
wholly  independent  plants  as,  for  example,  the  heaths, 
oaks,  apples,  and  pines.  It  is  probable  that  the  fungous 
threads  perform  some  of  the  offices  of  root -hairs  to  the 
host.  On  the  other  hand,  the  fungus  obtains  some  nour- 
ishment from  the  host.  The  association  seems  to  be 
mutual. 

183.  Saprophytes  break  down  or  decompose  organic 
substances.  Chief  of  these  saprophytes  are  the  microscopic 
organisms  known  as 
bacteria  (Fig.  123). 
These  innumerable 
bodies  are  immersed  in 
water  or  iu  animal  and 
plant  juices,  and  absorb 
food  over*  their  entire 
surface.  By  breaking 
down  organic  combina- 
tions, they  jJroduce  decay. 
Largely  through  their 
agency,  and  that  of 
many  true  but  micro- 
scopic fungi,  all  things  pass  into  soil  and  gas.  Thus  are 
the  bodies  of  plants  and  animals  removed  and  the  con- 
tinuing round  of  life  is  maintained. 

184.  Some    parasites   are    green- leaved.       Such    is    the 
mistletoe.      They    anchor    themselves    on    the    host    and 


121.    Saprophytic  fungus.   One  of  tlie  shelf  fungi 
(Polyporus)  growing  on  dead  trunks  and  logs. 


88 


DEPENDENT     PLANTS 


absorb  its  juices,  but  they  also  appropriate  and  use  the 
carbon  dioxid  of  the  air.  In  some  groups  of  colored 
bacteria  the  process  of  photosynthesis, 
or  something  equivalent  to  it,  takes 
place. 

185.  Parasitism  and  saprophytism 
are  usually  regarded  as  degeneration, 
that  is,  as  a  loss  of  independence. 
The  ancestors  of  these  plants  might 
have  been  independent.  Thus,  the 
whole  class  of  fungi  is  looked  upon  as 
a  degenerate  evolution.  The  more  a 
plant  depends  on  other  plants,  the 
more  it  tends  still  further  to  lose  its 
,„„    .         .^.  „  independence. 

122.    A  parasitic  fungus, 

magnifled.     The  my-  ^gG.     EPIPHYTES.  —  To        be        distiu  - 

celium,  or  vegetative 

dotted^- shaded ^parts  g^^ishcd  from  the  dependent  plants  are 
ramifying  in  the  leaf  thosc  which  grow  ou  othcr  plants  with- 

tissue.    The  rounded  =  ^ 

haustoria  projecting  q^^  taking  food  from  them.     These  are 

into  the  cells,  are  also  " 

fi^ti^"'  arts*'of^'thf  green -leaved  plants  whose  roots  burrow 

MdCT%^ffel^*o?  the  ^^  *^®  hdiV^  of  the  host  plant  and  per- 

leaf-  haps  derive  some  food  from  it,  but  which 

subsist   chiefly   on  materials  which  they  secure  from  air- 

dust,  rain-water  and  the  air.     These  plants  are  epiphytes 

(meaning  "upon  plants")  or  air-plants. 

187.    Epiphytes   abound   in   the   tropics.      Orchids  are 
amongst   the    best    known    examples    (Fig.  &    ^^ 

13).     The  Spanish  moss  or  tillandsia  of  the        ^  ^©o<i 
South    is    another.       Mosses     and     lichens  &^^  oT 
which  grow  on  trees  and  fences  may  also  be 
called  epiphytes.     In  the  struggle  for  exis-  123.  Bacteria,  much 
tence,  the  plants  probably  have  been  driven         magnified. 
to    these    special  places   in   which   to  find   opportunity  to 
grow.     Plants    grow  where    they   must,    not    where    they 
will. 


'^^ 


REVIEW  ON  DEPENDENT  PLANTS         89 

Review. —  What  is  an  independent  plant?  Dependent?  Give 
examples.  How  are  dependent  plants  distinguished  from  others  in 
looks?  Define  parasite.  Saprophyte.  Give  examples.  What  is  a 
host?  How  does  a  parasitic  fungus  live  on  its  host?  What  are 
hyphse?  What  is  mycelium?  What  are  root-parasites?  Give 
examples.  What  is  a  mycorrhiza?  What  is  the  relation  of  the  soil 
fungus  to  its  host?  What  is  the  role  or  office  of  saprophytes  in 
nature?  Are  parasites  ever  green  ?  Explain.  What  has  probably 
been  the  evolution  of  most  parasites  and  saprophytes?  What  is  an 
epiphyte?  Give  examples.  How  do  they  live?  Why  may  they 
have  become  epiphytes? 

Note  — Usually,  the  most  available  parasite  is  the  dodder.  It 
is  common  in  swales  from  July  until  autumn,  winding  its  coral- 
yellow  stems  about  herbs  and  soft-growing  bushes.  It  is  a  degraded 
member  of  the  morning-glory  family.  It  produces  true  flowers  and 
seeds.  These  seeds  germinate  the  following  spring.  The  slender 
young  vine  grows  from  the  ground  for  a  time,  but  if  it  fails  to  find  a 
host,  it  perishes. 


The  cultivated  mushroom,  a  saprophytic  plant. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


LEAVES  AND  FOLIAGE 


188.  Leaves  may  be  studied  from  two  points  of  view 
— with  reference  to  their  function,  or  what  they  do  ; 
and  with  reference  to  their  form,  or  their  shapes  and 
kinds. 

189.  FUNCTION. — Leaves,  as  we  have  seen,  make  or- 
ganic matters  from  carbon  dioxid  and  water;  they  respire, 
throwing  off  carbon  dioxid  as  waste;  they  digest  the 
starch,  that  it  may  be  transported;  and  they  perform 
other  vital  activities.  Functions  which  require  both  lungs 
and  stomach  in  animals  (respiration  and  digestion)  are 
performed  by  leaves;  and  in  addition  to  these  functions, 
they  appropriate  the  carbon  of  the  air  (process  of  photo- 
synthesis), a  work  which  is  peculiar  to  plants.  Any  part 
of  the  plant,  however,  may  bear  chlorophyll  and  perform 

the  functions  of  leaves.  Even  aerial 
roots,  as  of  orchids,  are  sometimes  green. 
190,  The  general  form  and  structure 
of  leaves  is  intimately  associated  with 
their  function :  they  are  thin  and  much- 
expanded  bodies,  thereby  exposing  the 
greatest  possible  surface  to  light  and 
air.  The  position  of  the  leaves  usually 
has  relation  to  light,  as  we  have  seen 
(Chapter  VIII).  Leaves  usually  hang 
in  such  a  way  that  one  casts  the  least 
shade    on    the    other ;     those   die    and 

124.  Simple  leaf.   One    f^n  which  havc  the  Icast  favorable  po- 
of   the    eupatoriums        .    . 
or  boneseU.  SltlOnS. 

(90) 


FORM    OF    LEAVES 


91 


125.   Compound  or  branched  leaf  of  brake 
(which  is  a  fern). 


191.  FORM. — Leaves  are  simple  or  unbraiiched  (Fig. 
124),  aud  compound  or  branched  (Fig.  125).  The 
method  of  compounding  or  branching  follows  the  style 
of  veining.     The  veining,  or  venation,  is  of  two  general 

kinds:  in  most  plants 
the  main  veins  di- 
verge, and  there  is  a 
conspicuous  network 
of  smaller  veins:  such 
leaves  are  netted- 
veined.  In  other 
plants  the  main  veins 
are  parallel,  or  nearh' 
so,  and  there  is  no 
conspicuous  network : 
these  are  parallel- 
veined  leaves  (Fig.  136).  The  venation  of  netted-veined 
leaves  is  pinnate  or  feather -like,  when  the  veins  arise  from 
the  side  of  a  continuous  midrib  (Fig.  124);  palmate  or 
digitate  (hand-like),  when  the  veins  arise  from  the  apex 
of  the  petiole  (Fig.  126).  If  the  leaf  were  divided  be- 
tween the  main  veins,  it  would 
be  pinnately  or  digitately  coui- 
pound. 

192.  It  is  customary  to  speak 
of  a  leaf  as  compound  only  when 
the  parts  or  branches  are  com- 
pletely separate  blades,  as  when 
the  division  extends  to  the  midrib  

(Figs.    125,    127,   128).       The    parts      126.  Digitate-veined  peltate  leaf 

or  branches    are    known    as   leaf-  °  ^^^  ^  '^™' 

lets.  Sometimes  the  leaflets  themselves  are  compound,  and 
the  whole  leaf  is  then  said  to  be  hi- compound  or  twice- 
compound  (Fig.  125).  Some  leaves  are  three-compound, 
four  -  compound,    or    five  -  compound.      Decompound    is    a 


92 


LEAVES     AND     FOLIAGE 


Pinnately  compouud  leaf  of  ash. 


general  term  to  express  any  degree  of  compounding  be- 
yond twice -compound. 

193.  Leaves  which  are  not   divided   to  the  midrib  are 
said  to  be  : 

lobed,  openings  or  sinuses 

not  more  than  half  the 

depth     of     the     blade 

(Fig.  129). 

cleft,  sinuses  deeper  than 

the  middle. 
parted,  sinuses  two-thirds 
or  more  to  the  midrib 
(Fig.  130). 
divided,  sinuses  nearly  or  quite  to  the  midrib. 
The  parts  are  called  lohes,  divisions,  or  segments,  rather 
than    leafleis.     The    leaf   may   be  pinnately  or   digitately 
lobed,  parted,   cleft,  or   divided.     A   pin- 
nately  parted    or   cleft  leaf   is    sometimes 
said  to  be  pinnatifid. 

194.  Leaves  may  have  one  or  all  of 
three  parts — blade  or  expanded  part,  pet- 
iole or  stalk,  stipules  or  appendages  at 
the  base  of  the  petiole.  All  these  parts 
are  shown  in  Fig.  131.  A  leaf  which  has 
all  three  of  these 
parts  is  said  to  be 
complete.  The 
stipules  are  often 
green  and  leaf- like 
and  perform  the  function  of  foliage, 
as  in  the  pea  and  Japanese  quince 
(the  latter  common  in  yards). 

195.  Leaves  and  leaflets  which 
have  no  stalks  are  said  to  be  ses- 
sile  (Fig.  137),   i.e.,  sitting.       The     129.  Lobed  leaf  of  sugar  maple, 


128.    Digitately 
pound  leaf  of  rasp 
berry. 


FOKM    OF    LEAVES 


93 


130.   Digit ately  parted  leaves  of  begoi: 


same  is  said  of  flowers  and  fruits.  The  blade  of  a  sessile 
leaf  may  partly  or  whollj^  surround  the  stem,  when  it  is 
said  to  be  clasping  (Fig. 
132).  In  some  cases  the 
leaf  runs  down  the  stem, 
forming  a  wing :  such 
leaves  are  said  to  be  de- 
current  (Fig.  133) .  When 
opposite  sessile  leaves  are 
joined  by  their  bases,  they 
are  said  to  be  connate 
(Fig.  134). 

196.  Leaflets  may  have 
one  or  all  of  these  three 
parts,  but  the  stalks  of  leaflets  are  called  petiolules  and 
the  stipules  of  leaflets  are  called  stipels.  The  leaf  of  the 
garden  bean  has  leaflets,  petiolules,   and  stipels. 

197.  The   blade    is   usually    attached  to 
the  petiole  by  its  lower  edge.     In  pinnate - 
veined  leaves,  the  petiole  seems  to  continue 
through  the  leaf  as    a   midrib    (Fig.  124). 
In  some  plants,  however,  the 
petiole  joins  the  blade  inside 
or  beyond  the  margin  (Figs. 
126,    135).     Such  leaves   are 
said  to  be  peltate  or  shield - 
shaped.   This  mode  of  attach- 
ment is  particularly  common 
in  floating  leaves  (e.  g.,  the 
132.  Clasping  leaf  water  Hlics) .      Pcltatc  leaves 
wi    aster.      ^^,^  usuall}^  digitate- vcincd. 
198.  SHAPE. — Leaves  and  leaflets  are  infinitely  variable 
in  shape.     Names  have  been  given  to  some  of  the  more 
definite  or  regular  shapes.     These  names  are  a  part  of  the 
language  of  botany.     These  names  represent  ideal  or  typi- 


131.  Complete  leaves 
of  willow. 


94  LEAVES     AND     FOLIAGE 

cal  shapes,  but  there  are  no  two  leaves  alike  and  very 
few  which  perfectly  conform  to  the  definitions.  The 
shapes  are  likened  to  those  of  familiar  objects  or  of  geo- 
metrical figures.  Some  of  the  commoner  shapes  are  as 
follows  : 
Linear,  several   times   longer  than  broad,  with    the   sides 

\nearl3^  or  quite   parallel.     Spruces  and  most  grasses 
are  examples.     Fig.  136.     In  linear  leaves,  the   main 
veins  are  usually  parallel  to  the  midrib. 
Oblong,  twice  or  thrice  as  long  as  broad,  with  the  sides 

%  parallel  for  most  of  their  length.  Fig.  137  shows  the 
short- oblong  leaves  of  the  box,  a  plant  which  is  much 
used  for  edgings  in  gardens. 

Elliptic  differs  from  the  oblong  in  having  the  sides  gradn- 

Vally  tapering  to  either  end  from  the  middle.  The  Eu- 
ropean beech.  Fig.  138,  has  elliptic  leaves.  (This  tree 
is  often  planted.) 

Lanceolate,  four  to  six  times   longer  than  broad,  widest 

\  below  the  middle  and  tapering  to  each  end.  Some  of 
the  narrow -leaved  willows  are  examples.  Most  of 
the  willows  and  the  peach  have  oblong-lanceolate 
leaves. 

Spatulate,  a  narrow  leaf  which    is  broadest   towards   the 

Vapex.  The  top  is  usually  rounded.  It  is  much  like 
an  oblong  leaf. 

Ovate,  shaped  somewhat  like  the  longitudinal  section  of 
^  an  egg:  twice  as  long  as  broad,  tapering  from  near 
^  the  base  to  the  apex.  This  is  one  of  the  commonest 
^  leaf  forms.     Fig.  139. 

Obovate,  ovate  inverted, — the  wide  part  towards  the  apex. 
^  Leaflets  of  horse-chestnut  are  obovate.  This  form  is 
^^  commonest  in  leaflets  of  digitate  leaves. 

Reniform,  kidney -shaped.  This  form  is  sometimes  seen  in 
^^  wild  plants,  particularly  in  root -leaves.  Leaves  of 
^W  wild  ginger  are  nearly  reniform. 

Orbicular,  circular  in  general  outline.  Very  few  leaves  are 
^^  perfectly  circular,  but  there  are  many  which  are  nearer 
^tl  circular  than  any  other  shape.    Fig.  140. 


SHAPE    OF    LEAVES 


95 


The  shape  of  many  leaves  is  described  in  combinations 
of  these  terms,  as  ovate -lanceolate,  lanceolate-oblong. 

199.  The  shape  of  the  base 
and  apex  of  the  leaf  or  leaflet 
is  often  characteristic.  The 
base  may  be  rounded  (Fig. 
124),  tapering  (Fig.  127),  cor- 
date or  heart-shaped  (Fig.  139), 
truncate  or  squared  as  if  cut 
off.  The  apex  may  be  blunt  or 
obtuse,  acute  or  sharp,  acum- 
inate or  long -pointed,  truncate 
(Fig.  141). 

200  The  shape  of  the  mar- 
gin is  also  characteristic  of  each  kind  of  leaf.  The  mar- 
gin is  entire  when  it  is  not  indented  or  cut  in  any  way 
(Fig.  137).  When  not  entire,  it  may  be  undulate  or  wavy 
(Fig.  126),  serrate  or  saw -toothed  (Fig.  139),  dentate  or 
more  coarsely  notched  (Fig. 
124),  crenate  or  round - 
toothed,  lobed,  etc. 

201.  Leaves  often  differ 
greatly  in  form  on  the  same 
plant.  Observe  the  differ- 
ent shapes  of  leaves  on  the 
young  growths  of  mulberries 
and  wild  grapes ;  also  on 
vigorous  squash  and  pumpkin 
vines.  In  some  cases  there 
may  be  simple  and  compound 
leaves  on  the  same  plant. 
This  is  marked  in  the  so-called  Boston  ivy  or  ampelopsis 
(Fig.  142),  a  vine  which  is  used  to  cover  brick  and  stone 
buildings.  Different  degrees  of  compounding,  even  in 
the  same  leaf,    may  often  be  found    in  honey  locust  and 


134.  Two  pairs  of  connate  leaves 
of  honeysuckle. 


96 


LEAVES     AND     FOLIAGE 


l.i:>.  I'ult.ite  ka\eb  ot  ho-cilled 
Egyptian  lotus. 


Kentucky  coffee  tree.  Remark- 
able differences  in  forms  are 
seen  by  comparing  seed-leaves 
with  mature  leaves  of  any  plant 
(Fig.  143). 

202.  THE  LEAF  AND 
ITS  ENVIRONMENT.  — 
The  form  and  shape 
of  the  leaf  often  have 
direct   relation  to  the 

place  in  which  the  leaf  grows.  Floating  leaves 
are  usualli/  expanded  and  flat,  and  the  petiole 
varies  in  length  with  the  depth  of  the  water. 
Submerged  leaves  are  usually  linear  or  thread- lil-e, 
or  are  cut  into  very  narrow  divisions.  Thereby  is 
more  surface  exposed,  and  possibly  the  leaves  are 
less  injured  by  moving  water. 

203.  The  largest  leaves  on  a  sun -loving  plant 
are  usually  those  which  are  fulhj  exposed  to  light. 
Compare  the  sizes  of  the  leaves  on  the  ends  of 
branches  with   those    at 


136.  Linear- 
acuminate 
leaf       of 


:> 


the  base  of  the  branches 

or  in  the  interior  of  the  ,     \  //c 

tree -top.    In  dense  foli-  f^ 

age  masses,  the  petioles   ^^- 

of    the    lowermost    or    ^^^  j 

undermost  leaves  tend  to 
^'^^^'  elongate  — to  push  the 
leaf  to  the  light  (Fig.  144). 

204.  On  the  approach  of  win-  ^^^^ 

ter  the  leaf  ceases  to  work,  and  V 

often  dies.  It  may  drop,  when  it  ^^t.  Short-obiong  leaves  of  box. 
is  said  to  be  deciduous ;  or  it  may  remain  on  the  plant, 
when  it  is  said  to  be  persistent.  If  persistent  leaves  re- 
main green  during   the  winter,   the    plant   is  said   to   be 


FALLING    OF    THE    LEAF 


97 


evergreen.  Most  leaves  fall  by  breaking  off  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  petiole  with  a  distinct  joint  or  articulation. 
There  are  many  leaves,  however,  which  wither  and  hang 


138.    Elliptic   leaf 
of  purple  beech. 


Ovate  serrate  leaf 

cf  hibiscus. 


140.   Orbicular  lobed  leaves. 


on  the  plant  nntil  torn  off  by  the  wind  :  of  snch  are  the 
leaves  of  grasses,  sedges,  lilies,  orchids,  and  other  plants 
known  as  monocotyledons  (Chap.  XXIII).  Most  leaves 
of  this  character  are  parallel -veined.     Consult  439. 

205.  Leaves  also  die  and  fall  from  lack  of  light.  Ob- 
serve the  yellow  and  weak  leaves  in  a  dense  tree -top  or  in 
any  thicket.  Why  do  the  lower  leaves 
die  on  house-plants?  Note  the  carpet 
of  needles  under  the  pines.  All  ever- 
greens shed  their  leaves  after  a  time. 
Counting  back  from  the  tip  of  a  pine 
or  spruce  shoot,  determine  how  many 
years  the  leaves  persist  (Fig.  145). 
In  some  spruces  a  few  leaves  may  be 
found  on  branches  ten  or  more  years 
old.     Leaves    usually  persist  longest 

in  the   lightest   positions    (Fig.    77).  ^^^-  Tmucate leaf  of  tulip-tree 

206.  Although  the  forms  and  positions  of  leaves  often 
have  direct  relation  to  the  places  and  conditions  in  which 


98 


LEAVES     AND     FOLIAGE 


li2.   Different  forms  of  leaves  from  one 


the  leaves  grow,  H  is  not  known  that  all  forms  and  shapes 
have  been  developed  to  adapt  the  plant  to  its  environment. 

It  is  probable  that  the 
toothing  or  lobing  of  the 
leaf -margins  is  due  to  the 
same  causes  which  produce 
compounding  or  branching 
of  leaves,  but  what  these 
causes  are  is  not  known. 
It  has  been  suggested  that 
leaves  have  become  com- 
pound in  order  to  increase 
their  surface  and  thereby 
to  offer  a  greater  exposure 
to  light  in  shady  places, 
but  very  many  sun -loving 

plant  of  ampelopsis.  SpCCicS        liaVC        COmpOUnd 

leaves,  and  many  shade-loving  species  have  simple  and 
even  small  leaves.  Again,  it  has  been  suggested  that  com- 
pound leaves  shade  underlying  leaves  less  than  simple 
leaves  do. 

207.  HOW  TO  TELL  A  LEAF.— It  is  often  difficult  to  dis- 
tinguish compound  leaves  from  leafy  branches  and  leaflets 
from  leaves.  As  a  rule,  leaves  can  be  told  by  the  follow- 
ing tests-  (1)  Leaves  are  temporary  structures,  sooner 
or  later  falli-g  (2)  Usu- 
ally buds  are  borne  in 
their  axils.  (3)  Leaves  are 
usually  borne  at  joints  or 
nodes.  (4)  They  arise  on 
wood  of  the  current-year's 
growth.  (5)  They  have  a 
more  or  less  definite  arrangement.  When  leaves  fall,  the 
twig  which  bore  them  remains;  when  leaflets  fall;  the  main 
petiole  which  bore  them  falls  also. 


143.   Muskmelon  seedlings,  with  the  un- 
like seed-leaves  and  true  leaves. 


144.    A  leaf  mosaic  of  Norway  maple.    Note  the 
lengths  of  petioles. 


Shoot  of  the  common  white  pine,  one-third  natural  size. 


The  PiPture  shows  the  falling  of  the  leaves  from  the  different  years 
growth,  rho  part  of  the  liranch  between  the  tip  and  A  is  the  last 
season  s  growtli  ;  between  A  and  B  it  is  two  years  old  ;  the  part 
Detween  B  and  C  is  three  years  old;  it  has  few  leaves.  The  part  that 
grew  four  seasons  ago— beyond  C— has  no  leaves. 


100 


LEAVES     AND     FOLIAGE 


Review. — How  m:iy  leaves  be  studied  ?  What  is  meant  by  fune- 
timi  ?  "Whiit  do  leaves  do?  What  other  parts  may  perform  the  function 
of  leaves?  How  is  form  of  leaves  associated  with 
their  function  ?  What  are  simple  leaves  ?  Com- 
pound? What  is  venation?  What  are  the  types  or 
kinds  of  venation?  What  are  the  two  types  of 
compound  leaves?  What  is  a  leaflet?  Define  bi- 
compound  ;  decompound.  What  are  lobed,  cleft, 
parted,  and  divided  leaves?  Pinnatifid  leaf  ?  Com- 
plete leaf?  Complete  leaflet?  What  is  a  sessile 
leaf?  How  may  the  petiole  join  the  blade?  How 
are  the  shapes  of  leaves  named  or  classified?  De- 
fine the  shapes  described  in  198.  Describe  com- 
mon sliapes  of  the  base  of  the  leaf.  Of  the  apex. 
Of  the  margin.  How  are  the  forms  and  sizes  of 
leaves  ever  related  to  the  place  in  which  they  grow?  Why  do  leaves 
fall  ?  Define  deciduous.  Persistent.  Evergreen.  When  do  pine 
leaves  fall  ?  How  cnn  you  distinguish  leaves?  Describe  the  leaf  in 
Fig.  14n. 


14G.   Oblique  leaf  of 
the  elm. 


luae  bushes  in  January  and  July.— Framework  and  foliage. 


CHAPTER   XV 

MORPHOLOGY,  OR  THE   STUDY  OF  THE  FORMS  OF 
PLANT    MEMBERS 

208.  Botanists  interpret  all  parts  of  the  plant  in  terms 
of  root,  stem,  and  leaf.  That  is,  the  various  parts,  as 
thorns,  flowers,  fruits,  bud-scales,  tendrils,  and  abnormal 
or  unusual  members,  are  supposed  to  represent  or  to  stand 
in  the  place  of  roots,  stems  (branches),  or  leaves. 

209.  The  forms  of  the  parts  of  plants  are  interesting, 
therefore,  in  three  ways:  (1)  merely  as  forms,  which  may 
be  named  and  described;  (2)  their  relation  to  function,  or 
how  they  enable  Uie  part  better  to  live  and  work;  (3)  their 
origin,  as  to  how  they  came  to  be  and  whether  they  have 
been  produced  by  the  transformation  of  other  parts.  The 
whole  study  of  forms  is  known  as  morphology  (literally, 
the  "science  of  forms").  We  may  consider  examples  in 
the  study  of  morphology. 

210.  It  is  customary  to  say  that  the  various  parts  of 
plants  are  transformed  or  modified  root,  stem,  or  leaf,  but 
the  words  transformation  and  modification  are  not  used  in 
the  literal  sense.  Itismeant  that  the  given  part  p,s  a  tendril, 
may  occupy  the  place  of  or  represent  a  leaf.  It  was  not 
first  a  leaf  and  then  a  tendril:  the  part  develops  into  a  ten- 
dril instead  of  into  a  leaf,-  it  stands  where  a  leaf  normally 
might  have  stooa;  it  is  the  historical  descendant  of  the  leaf. 

211.  It  is  better  to  say  that  parts  which  have  similar 
origins,  which  arise  from  the  same  fundamental  type,  or 
which  are  of  close  genealogical  relationship,  are  homolo- 
gous.    Thus  the  tendril,  in  the  instance   assumed  above 
is  homologous  with  &  leaf.    Parts  which  have  similar  func- 

(101) 


102 


MOKPHOLOGY 


tious  or  perform  siiDilar  labor,  without  respect  to  origins, 
are    analogous.     Thus    a  leaf -tendril    is    analogous   to    a 


branch -tendril 
logons. 
212. 
we  may 


but 


a 

the    two 


are    not    homo- 


There  are  five  tests  by  means  of  which 
hope  to  determine  what  a  given  part 
is  :  (  1 )  by  the  appearance  or 
looks  of  the  part  (the  least  reli- 
able test) ;  (2)  by  the  position 
of  the  part  with  relation  to  other 
parts  —  its  place  on  the  plant ; 
(3)  by  comparison  with  similar 
parts  on  other  plants  (compara- 
tive morphology) ;  (4)  by  study  of 
intermediate  or  connecting  parts  ;  (^"3)  by  study  of  the 
development  of  the  part  in  the  bud  or  as  it  originates, 
by  means  of  the  microscope  (embryology).  The  last 
test  can  be  applied  only  by  the  trained  investigator,  but 
it  often  gives   the  most   conclusive  evidence.     Even  with 


147.  Leaf  and  clad 
ophyllaofaspar 

agus. 


1-J8.   Leaves  of 
asparagus. 


'^<:^ 


149.    Fern-like  leaf-oranehes  of 
greenhouse  asparagus. 


the  application  of  all  these  tests,  it  is  sometimes  im- 
possible to  arrive  at  a  definite  conclusion  as  to  the 
origin  or  morphology  of  a  part.  For  example,  it  is  not 
yet  agreed  whether  most  cactus  spines  represent  leaves  or 


CLADOPHYLLA 


103 


branches,  or  are  mere    outgrowths  of    the  epidermis  (as 
hairs  are). 

213.  The  foliage 
of  asparagus  is  com- 
posed of  modified 
branches.  The  true 
leaves  of  asparagus 
are  minute  whitish 
scales  {a,  Fig.  147) . 
The  green  foliage  is 
produced  in  the  axils 
of  these  scales.  On 
the  strong  spring 
shoots  of  asparagus, 
which  are  eaten, 
the  true  leaves 
appear  as  large 
scales  (a,  o,  Fig.  148) .  These  large 
scales  persist  on  the  base  of 

the  asparagus  plant,  even  in  the  fall.     In  the  spe- 
cies of  greenhouse  or   ornamental   asparagus,    the 
delicate  foliage  is  also  made  up  of  green  leaf-like 
branches  (Fig.  149).     In  some  cases  the  true  leaves 
fall  after  a  time,  and  there  is  little  evidence  left. 
The  strong  new  shoots  usually  show  the  true 
leaves  plainly  (as  in  Fig.  150).    Branches  which 
simulate    leaves    are     known    as    cladophylla 
(.singular,     cladophyllum).      The    broad    flat 
leaves    of    florists'   smilax    (common  in    glass- 
houses) are  cladophylla. 
Strong  N\  214.  In    the    study    of    morphology, 

new  shoot  of   ^  1  •  l    •  j.  i         i  i        x 

Asparagus    m--  it  IS  not  cuough,    howcvcr,    merely   to 

sh^^n|7he     %.  determine   whether    a    part     represents 

and^the^Yranches^y  root,  stcm,  or  leaf:   ouc  must  determine 

their'afos.^    *°"^    ^  what  part  or  kind  of  root,  stem,  or  leaf 


U.  Phyllodia  of  acf,- 
eia.  These  Australian 
trees  are  sometimes 
grown  in  glasshouses. 


104 


MORPHOLOGY 


152.  The  tliorus  are  ia  the  axils 
of  leaves. 


it  stands  for.  For  example,  the  foliage  in  Fig.  151 
represents  green  expanded  petioles.  These  leaf -like  mem- 
bers bear  buds  (which  produce 
branches)  in  their  axils,  and  they 
have  the  arrangement  or  phyllo- 
taxy  of  leaves ;  therefore  they  are 
considered  to  be  true  leaf  parts. 
But  they  stand  edgewise  as  if 
they  might  be  petioles ;  sometimes 
they  bear  leaf -blades;  other  aca- 
cias have  compound  expanded  leaves; 
there  are  intermediate  forms  or  grada- 
tions between  different  acacias;  young 
seedlings  sometimes  show  intermediate 
forms.  From  all  the  evidence,  it  is  now 
understood  that  the  foliage  of  the  simple- 
leaf  acacias  represents  leaf -like  petioles. 
Such  petioles  are  known  as  phyllodia 
(singular,  phyllodium). 

215.  Thorns 
and  strong  spines  are  usually 
branches.  The  spines  of  hawthorns 
or  thorn-apples  are  examples:  they 
are  borne  in  the  axils  of  leaves  as 
branches  are  (Fig.  152) ;  hawthorns 
usually  bear  two  or  more  buds  in  each 
axil  (Fig.  153),  and  one  or  two  of 
these  buds  often  grow 
the  following  year  into 
normal  leafy  branches  (Fig.  154) ;  sometimes 
the  thorn  itself  bears  leaves  (Fig.  155). 
The  thorns  of  wilding  pears,  apples,  and 
plums  are  short,  hardened  branches.  In 
well -cultivated  trees  there  is  sufficient  vigor 

.  .  *  155.     The    thorn 

to  push    the  main    branch    into    longer    and     may  bear  leaves. 


153.    Two  or  more  bud;^ 
are  borne  in  the  axils. 


154.    Some  of  the  buds  pro- 
duce leafy  branches. 


PRICKLES    AND    BRISTLES 


105 


156.   Leaf-spine  of 
barberry. 


softer  growth,  so  that  the  side  buds  do  not  have  a  chance 
to  start.  The  thorns  of  osage  orange  and  honey  locust 
are  also  branches.  Those  of  the  honey  locust  usually 
arise  from  supernumerary  buds  which  are 
borne  somewhat  above  the  axils. 

216.  Prickles,  bristles,  and  tveaJc  spines, 
which  have  a  definite  arrangement  on  the 
stem,  are  tisually  modified  leaves  or  parts 
of  leaves.  The  spines  of 
thistles  are  hardened 
points  of  leaf-lobes.  The  spines  of  the 
barberry  are  reduced  leaves;  in  their  axils 
are  borne  short  branches  or  leaf -tufts 
(Pig.  156)  ;  in  spring  on  young  shoots 
may  be  found  almost  complete  gradations 
from  spiny  leaves  to  spines.  The  prickly 
ash  has  prickles  that  simulate  stipules  and 
stipels,  but  the  irregularity  of  position  in- 
dicates that  they  are  not  homologous  with 
stipules.  The  prickles  of  the  common  locust 
(robinia)  are  usually  interpreted  as  stipules. 
217.  Prickles,  bristles,  and  hairs,  which 
are  scattered  or 
have  no  dofintie  ar- 
rangement, are  usu- 
ally mere  out-grow^ths  of  the  epi- 
dermis. They  usually  are  re- 
moved with  the  bark.  Of  such  are 
the  prickles  of  squashes,  briars 
(Fig.  158),  and  roses. 

218.  The  reason  for  the   exis- 
tence of    spines    is  difficult  to  de- 
termine.    In   many  or    most  cases 
they  seem  to  have  no  distinct  use  or  function.     In   some 
way  they  are  associated  with  the  evolution  of  the  plant, 


57.  Small  prickles  of 
the  prickly  ash. 


158.   Prickles  of  dewberry. 


106 


MORPHOLOGY 


and  one  cannot  determiue  wh}-  they  came  without  know- 
ing much  of  the  genealogy  of  the  plant.  In  some 
cases  they  seem  to  be  the  result  of 
the  contraction  of  the  plant -body, 
as  in  the  cacti  and  other  desert 
plants;  and  they  may  then  serve  a 
purpose  in  lessening  transpiration. 
It  is  a  common  notion  that  spines  and 
prickles  exist  for  the  purpose  of  keep- 
ing enemies  away,  and  that  hairs 
keep  the  plant  warm,  but  these  ideas 
usually  lack  scientific  accuracy.  Even 
if  spines  do  keep  away  browsing  ani- 
mals in  any  plant,  it  is  quite  another 
question  why  the  spines  came  to  be.  159.  The diminishiug  leaves 
To  answer  the  question  what  spines  °^  boneset. 

and  hairs  are  for  demands  close   scientific  study  of   each 
particular  ease,  as  any  other  problem  does. 

219.  Leaves  are  usually 
smaller  as  they  approach  the 
flowers  (Fig.  159).  They 
often  become  so  much  reduced 
as  to  he  mere  scales,  losing 
their  office  as  foliage.  In 
their  axils,  however,  the 
flower-branches  may  be  borne 
(Fig.  160).  Much-reduced 
leaves,  particularly  those 
which  are  no  longer  green 
and  working  members,  are 
called  bracts.  In  some  cases, 
large  colored  bracts  are  borne 
just  beneath  the  flowers  and 
look  like  petals  :  the  flowering  dogwood  is  an  example  ; 
also  the  bougainvillea,  which  is  common  in    glasshouses 


160.   The  uppermost  flowers  are  borne 
in  the  axils  of  bracts.— Fuchsia. 


SCALES     OF    BUDS    AND     BULBS 


107 


(Fig.    161)  ;     also  the   scarlet   sage  of    gardens   and    the 
flaming  poinsettia  of  greenhouses. 

220.  The  scales  of  buds  are  special  kinds  of  bracts.  In 
some  cases  each  scale  represents  an  entire  leaf;  in  others, 
it  represents  a  petiole  or  stipule.  In  the  expanding  pear, 
maple,  lilac,  hickory,  and 
horse-chestnut  buds,  note  the 
gradation  from  dry  scales  to 
green  leaf -like  bodies.  When 
the  winter  scales  fall  by  the 
pushing  out  of  the  young 
shoot,  scars  are  left :  these 
scars  form  "rings,"  which 
mark  the  annual  growths. 
See  Chap.  VII.  The  scales 
of  bulbs  are  also  special 
kinds  of  leaves  or  bracts. 
In  some  cases  they  are  merely 
protective  bodies ;  in  others 
they  are  storeJiouses .  We 
have  found  (45)  that  the 
presence  of  scales  or  bracts  is  one  means  of  distinguish 
ing  underground  stems  from  roots. 


161.  In  the  bougaiuvillea  three  gaudily 
colored  bracts  surround  each  clus- 
ter of  three  small  flowers. 


Review. — What  are  considered  to  be  the  fundamental  or  type 
forms  from  which  the  parts  of  plants  are  derived?  How  do  the  forms 
of  plants  interest  us?  What  is  morphology?  What  is  meant  by  trans- 
formation and  modification  as  used  by  the  morphologist  ?  What  is 
meant  by  homologous  parts  ?  Analogous  parts?  Tell  how  one  may 
determine  the  morphology  of  any  i>art.  What  is  a  cladophyllum  ? 
Pliyllodium  ?  Show  a  specimen  of  one  or  the  other,  or  both 
(canned  asparagus  can  always  be  had  in  the  market).  What  is 
the  morphology  of  most  thorns?  Explain  the  thorns  of  hawthorn. 
What  are  bristles,  prickles,  and  hairs?  Why  do  spines  and  bristles 
exist!    Explain  what  a  bract  is.     A  bud-scale.     A  bulb-scale. 


CHAPTER   XVI 


HOW   PLANTS   CLIMB 


221.  We  have  seen  that  plants  struggle  or  contend  for 
a  place  in  which  to  live.  Some  of  them  become  adapted  to 
grow  in  the  forest  shade,  others  to  grow  on  other  plants 
as  epiphytes,  others  to  climb  to  the  light.  Observe  how 
woods  grapes,  and  other  forest  climbers,  spread  their  foli- 
age on  the  very  top  of  the  forest  tree,  while  their  long 
flexile  trunks  may  be  bare. 

222.  There  are  several  ways  in  which  plants  climb,  but 
most  climbers  may  be  classified  into  four  groups:  (1)  scram- 
blers, (2)  root-chmbers,  (3)  tendril-climbers,  (4)  twiners. 

223.  SCRAMBLERS.— Some  plants  rise  to  light  and  air 
by  resting  their  long  and  weak  stems  on  the  tops  of 
bushes  and  quick-growing  herbs.  Their  stems  are  ele- 
vated by  the  growing  twigs 
of  the  plants  on  which  they 
recline.  Such  plants  are 
scramblers.  Usually  they 
are  provided  with  prickles 
or  bristles.  In  most  weedy 
swamp  thickets,  scramb- 
ling plants  may  be  found. 
Briars,  some  roses,  bed- 
straw  or  galium,  bitter - 
sweet (Solanum  Dulcamara, 

not  the  celastrus),  the  tear-thumb  polygonums,  and  other 
plants  are  familiar  examples  of  scramblers. 

224.  ROOT-CLIMBERS.— Some  plants  climb  by  means  of 
true  roots,  as  explained    in   paragraph  31.     These  roots 

(108) 


A  root-climber.— The  English  ivy. 


TENDRIL  -  CLIMBERS  109 

seek  the  dark  places  and  therefore  enter  the  chinks  in 
walls  and  bark.  Fig.  12,  the  trumpet  creeper,  is  a  fa- 
miliar example.  The  true  or  English  ivy,  which  is  often 
grown  to  cover  buildings,  is  another  instance  (Fig.  162). 
Still  another  is  the  poison  ivy.  Roots  are  distinguished 
from  stem  tendrils  by  their  irregular  or  indefinite  posi- 
tion as  well  as  by  their  mode  of  growth. 

225.  TENDRIL-CLIMBERS.— A  slender  coiling  part  which 
serves  to  hold  a  climbing  plant  to  a  support  is  known  as  a 


103,    Tendril  of  Virginia,  creeper.     The  direction  of  tlie  coil  changes  near  tlie  middle. 

tendril.  The  free  end  swings  or  curves  until  it  strikes 
some  object,  when  it  attaches  itself  and  then  coils  and 
draws  the  plant  close  to  the  support.  The  spring  of  the  coil 
also  allows  the  plant  to  move  in  the  toind,  thereby  enabling 
the  plant  to  maintain  its  hold.  Slowly  pull  a  well -ma- 
tured tendril  from  its  support,  and  note  how  strongly  it 
holds  on.  Watch  the  tendrils  in  a  storm.  To  test  the 
movement  of  a  free  tendril,  draw  an  ink  line  lengthwise 
of  it,  and  note  that  the  line  is  now  on  the  concave  side 
and  now  on  the  convex  side.  Of  course  this  movement  is 
slow,  but  it  is  often  evident  in  an  hour  or  so.  Usually 
the  tendril  attaches  to  the  support  by  coiling  ahotit  it,  but 
the  Virginia  creeper  and  Boston  ivy  attach  to  walls  by 
means  of  disks  on  the  ends  of  the  tendrils. 

226.  Since  both  ends  of  the  tendril  are  fixed,  when  it 


110 


HOW     PLANTS     CLIMB 


finds  a  support,  the  coiling  would  tend  to  twist  it  in  two. 
It  will  be  found,  however,  that  the  tendril  coils  in  differ- 
ent directions  in  ditiferent  parts  of  its  length.  In  Fig. 
163  the  change  of  direction  in  the  coil  occurs  at  the 
straight  place  near  the  middle.  In  long  tendrils  of  cucum- 
bers and  melons  there  may  be  several  changes  of  direction. 
227.   Tendrils  may  be  either  branches  or  leaves.     In 


164.    The  fruit-cluster  and  tendril  of  grape  are  homologous. 


the  Virginia  creeper  and  grape  they  are  branches ;  they 
stand  opposite  the  leaves  in  the  position  of  fruit -clusters 
(Fig.  164),  and  sometimes  one  branch  of  a  fi-uit- cluster 
is  a  tendril.  These  tendrils  are  therefore  homologous 
with  fruit -clusters,  and  fruit -clusters  are  branches. 

228.  In  some  plants  tendrils  are  leaflets.  Examples 
are  the  sweet  pea  (Fig.  165)  and  common  garden  pea. 
In  Fig.  165,  observe  the  leaf  with  its  two  stipules,  petiole, 


TENDRIL  -  CLIMBERS 


111 


two  norma)  leaflets,  and  two  or  three  pairs  of  leaflet- 
Tendrils  and  a  terminal  leaflet -tendril.  The  cobea,  a 
common  garden  climber,  has  a  similar  arrangement.  In 
some  cases  tendrils  are  stipules,  as  probably  in  the  green- 
briars  (smilax). 

229.  The  petiole  or  midrib  may  act  as  a  tendril,  as  in 
various  kinds  of  clematis.    In  Fig.  166,  two  opposite  leaves 


165.    Ill  the  sweet  pea  (and  garden  pea)  the  leaflets  are  tendrils. 


are  attached  at  a.  Each  leaf  is  pinnately  compound  and 
has  two  pairs  of  leaflets  and  a  terminal  leaflet.  At  h  and 
c  the  midrib  or  rachis  has  wound  about  a  support.  The 
petiole  and  the  petiolules  may  behave  similarly.  Examine 
the  tall -growing  nasturtiums  in  the  garden. 

230.  TWINERS.— The  entire  plant  or  shoot  may  wind 
about  a  support.  Such  a  plant  is  a  twiner.  Examples 
are  bean,  hop,  morning-glory,  moon-flower,  false  bitter- 


112 


HOW     PLANTS     CLIMB 


sweet  or  wax- work  Ccelastrus),  some  honeysuckles,  wis- 
taria, Dutchman's  pipe,  dodder.  The  free  tip  of  the 
twining  branch  sweeps  about  in  curves,  much  as  the  tendril 
does,  until  it  finds  support  or  becomes  old  and  rigid, 

231.  Each    kind    of    plant   usually   coils    in   only   one 


166.    Clematis  climbs  by  means  of  its  leaf-stalks. 

direction.  Most  plants  coil  against  the  sun,  or  from  the 
observer's  left  across  his  front  to  his  right  as  he  faces  the 
plant.  Such  plants  are  said  to  be  dextrorse  (right-handed) 
orantitropic  (against  the  sun).  Examples  are  bean,  morn- 
ing-glory. The  hop  twines  from  the  observer's  right 
to  his  left.     Such  plants  are  sin^'strorse  (left-handed)  or 


REVIEW     ON     CLIMBING    PLANTS 


113 


107.    Dextrorse  .-ind  siiiisti 

bitter-sweet  and  hop. 


eutropic  (witli  the 
sun).  Fig. 167  shows 
the  two  directions. 

Review. — Why  do 
plants  climb?  How  do 
they  climb?  Explain 
what  is  meant  by  scram- 
blers. By  root-climbers. 
What  is  a  tendril?  How 
does  it  find  a  support? 
Why  and  how  does  it 
coil?  How  does  it  grasp 
its  support?  What  is  the 
morphology  of  the  ten- 
dril of  Virginia  creeper? 
Why?  Of  the  pea?  Of 
the  clematis?  What  is 
a  twiner?  How  does  it 
find  a  support  ?  (^ 

What  is  a  dex- 
trorse twiner? 
Sinistrorse? 
Note. — The 


pupil  may  not 
understand  why  the  branch  (as  tendril  and  flower- cluster) 
stands  opposite  the  bud  in  the  grape  and  Virginia  creeper. 
Note  that  a  grape-shoot  ends  in  a  tendril  (a,  Fig.  168). 
The  tendril  represents  the  true  axis  of  the  shoot.  On  the 
side  a  leaf  is  borne,  from  the  axil  of  which  the 
branch  grows  to  continue  the  shoot.  This  branch 
ends  in  a  tendril,  &.  Another  leaf  has  a  branch  in 
its  axil,  and  this  branch  ends  in  the  tendril  c.  The 
real  apex  of  the  shoot  is  successively  turned  aside 
until  it  appears  to  be  lateral.  That  is,  the  morpho- 
logically terminal  points  of  the  successive  shoots  are 
the  tendrils,  and  the  order  of  their  appearing  is  a, 
h,  c.  The  tendrils  branch:  observe  the  minute  scale 
representing  a  leaf  at  the  base  of  each  branch.  This 
type  of  branching — the  axial  growth  being  continued 
by  successive  lateral  buds — is  sympodial,  and  the 
branch  is  a  sympode.  Continuous  growth  from  the 
terminal  bud  is  monopodial,  and  the  branch  is  a  monopode 


:i 


r 


^ 
^ 


1()8.    Sympode 
of  tlie  grape. 


CHAPTER   XVII 


FLOWER-  BRANCHES 


232.  We  have  (86)  seen  that  branches  arise  from  the 
axils  of  leaves.  Sometimes  the  leaves  may  be  reduced  to 
bracts  and  yet  branches  are  borne  in  their  axils.    Some  of 

the  branches  grow  into  long  limbs; 

others  become  short  spurs;   others 

hear  flowers. 

233.  Flowers  are  usually  borne 
near  the  top  of  the  plant,  since 
the  plant  must  grow  before  it 
blooms.  Often  they  are  produced 
in  great  numbers.  It  results, 
therefore,  that  flower  -  branches 
usually  stand  close  together,  form- 
ing a  cluster.  The  shape  and 
arrangement  of  the  flower-cluster 
differ  with  the  kind  of  plant,  since 
each  plant  has  its  own  mode  of 
branching. 

234.  Certain  definite  or  well- 
marked  types  of  flower -clusters 
have  received  names.  Some  of 
these  names  we  shall  discuss,  but 
the  flower-clusters  which  perfectly 
match  the  definitions  are  the  ex- 
ception rather  than  the  rule.    The 

169.   Terminal  flowers  of  the  white-    determining  of    the  kiuds    of   flow- 
weed  (in  some  places  called  ox-eye 

daisy).  er- clusters  is  one  of  the  most  per- 

du) 


SOLITARY   FLOWERS — CORYMBOSE    CLUSTERS        115 


plexing  subjects  iu  descriptive  botany.  We  may  classify 
the  subject  around  three  ideas:  solitary  flowers,  corym- 
bose clusters,  cymose  clus- 
ters. 

235.  SOLITARY  FLOWERS.— 
In  many  cases  flowers  are  borrve 
singly.  They  are  then  said  to 
be  solitary.  The  solitary  flower 
may  be  either  at  the  end  of  the 
main  shoot  or  axis  (Fig.  169), 
when  it  is  said  to  be  terminal, 
or  from  the  side  of  the  shoot 
(Fig.  170),  when  it  is  said  to 
be  lateral.  The  lateral  flower 
is  also  said  to  be  axillary. 

236.  CORYMBOSE  CLUSTERS.— 
If  the  flower -bearing  axils  were 
rather  close  together,  an  open 
or  leafy  flower-cluster  might  re- 
sult, as  in  Fig.  171.  The  fuchsia  continues  to  grow  from 
the  tip,  and  the  older  flowers  are  left  farther  and  farther 
behind.  If  the  cluster  were  so 
short  as  to  be  flat  or  convex  on 
top,  the  outermost  flowers  would 
be  the  older.  A  flower -cluster 
in  which  the  lower  or  outer  flow- 
ers open  first  is  said  to  be  a 
corymbose  cluster.  It  is  some- 
times said  to  be  an  indetermi- 
nate cluster  since  it  is  the  re- 
sult of  a  type  of  growth  which 
may  go  on  more  or  less  contin- 
uously from  the  apex. 

237.  The  simplest  form  of  a  definite  corymbose  cluster 
is  a  raceme,  which  is  an  unbranched  open  cluster  in  which 


170.   Lateral  flower  of  abutilon. 


116 


FLOWER  -  BRANCHES 


the  flowers  are  borne  on  short  stems  and  open  from  below 
(that  is,  from  the  okler  part  of  the  shoot)  upwards.     The 

raceme  may  be  terminal 
to  the  main  branch,  as  in 
Fig.  172,  or  it  may  be 
lateral  to  it,  as  in  Fig. 
173.  Racemes  often  bear 
the  flowers  on  one  side 
of  the  stem,  or  in  a  sin- 
gle row. 

238.     When  a  corym- 
bose   flower -cluster    is    long 
id    dense    and    the    flowers 
e  sessile  or  nearly  so,  it  is 
lied    a    spike    (Figs.    174, 
o).     Common   examples  of 
pikes    are    plantain,    migno- 
lette,  mullein. 

239.  A  very  short  and 
dense  spike  is  a  head.  Clover 
(Fig.  176)  is  a  good  exam- 
ple. The  sunflower  and  re- 
lated plants  bear  many  small 
.     This  special  kind  of  head 


ITJ. 
le  of  Chinese  Wistaria. 


has  been  calk 


flowers  in  a  very  dense  head, 
of   the  sunflower,  thistle,   and 
an  antJiodiuni,  but 
this    word  is   little 
used.      Note    that 
in     the     sunflower 
(Fig.  177)  the  out- 
side    o  r     exterior 
flowers  open    first. 
Another   special 
form  of  spike  is  the  catkin,  which  usually  has  scaly  bracts 
and  the  whole  cluster  is  deciduous  after  flowering  or  fruit- 


s  (in  fruit)  of  barberry. 


COKYMBOSE     CLUSTERS 


117 


75.  Loose  spikes  of  fal«e 
dragon's  heart  or  pliyso- 
stegia. 


ing,  and  the  flowers  (in 
typical  cases)  have  only 
one  sex.  Examples  are 
the  "  pussies"  of  willows 
(Fig.  213)  and  flower- 
clusters  of  oaks  (Fig. 
212), hickories,  poplars. 

240.  When  a  loose, 
elongated  corymbose 
flower-cluster  branches, 
or  is  compound,  it  is 
called  a  panicle.  Be- 
cause of  the  earlier 
growth  of  the  lower 
branches,  the  panicle  is 

usually  broadest  at  the  base  or  conical  in  out- 
line.    True  panicles  are  not  common. 

241.  When  an  indeterminate  flower- cluster 
is  short,  so  that  the  top  is  convex  or  flat,  it  is 
a  corymb  (Fig.  178).  The  outermost  flowers 
open  first.     Fig.  179  shows  many  corymbs  of 

the  bridal  wreath,  one  of  the  spireas. 

242.  When  the  branches  of  an  indeterminate 

cluster  arise   from    a    common    point,   like    the 

frame  of  an  um- 
brella, the  clus- 
ter is  an  umbel 
(Fig.  180).  Typi- 
cal umbels  occur 
in  carrot,  par- 
snip, parsley  and 
other  plants  of 
the  parsley  fam- 
ily:    the  family 

Head  of  crimson  "-  r'     -^  _ 

clover.  177.    Head  of  •unflower.  IS    knOWn  AS    tne 


174.  Spike  of 
h  y acintb. 
Note,  also, 
that  the 
flowers  and 
foliage  are 
pro  d  uced 
from  the 
stored  food 
in  the  bulb, 
only  water 
being  given. 


118 


FLOWEE- BRANCHES 


Umbelliferaj,  or  umbel- 
bearing  family.  In  the 
carrot  and  many  other  Um- 
belliferae,  there  are  small 
or  secondary  umbels,  called 
umbellets,  at  the  end  of 
each  of  the  main  branches. 
(In  the  center  of  the  wild 
carrot  umbel  one  often 
finds  a  single,  blackish, 
often  aborted  flower, 
comprising  a  1  -  flowered 
umbellet.) 

243.  CYMOSE  CLUSTERS. 
— When      the      terminal     or        1"9-  Corymks  of  the  bridal  wreath  (spirea). 

central  flower  opens  first,  the  cluster  is  said  to  be  cymose. 
The  growth  of  the  shoot  or  cluster 
is  determinate,  since  the  length 
is  definitely  determined  or  stopped 
by  the  terminal  flower.  Fig.  181 
shows  a  determinate  or  cyraose 
mode  of  flower-bearing. 

24  i.  Dense  cymose  clusters  are 
usually  flattish  on  top  because  of 
the  cessation  of  growth  in  the 
main  or  central  axis.  These  com- 
pact flower -clusters  are  known  as 
cymes.  Apples,  pears  (Fig-  182) 
and  cherries  bear  flowers  in 
cymes.  Some  cyme -forms  are  like 
umbels  in  general  appearance.  A 
head -like  cymose  cluster  is  a 
glomerule :  it  blooms  from  the 
top  downwards  rather  than  from 

Corymb  of  candytuft.  the    baSB    UpwardS. 


MIXED  CLUSTERS  —  INFLORESCENCE 


119 


180.    Compound  umbel  of 
wild  carrot. 


245.  MIXED  CLUSTERS.— 
Often  the  cluster  is  mixed,  being 
determinate  in  one  part  and  in- 
determinate in  another  part  of 
the  same  cluster.  This  is  the 
case  in  Fig.  184,  The  main  clus- 
ter is  indeterminate,  but  the 
branches  are  determinate.  The 
cluster  has  the  appearance  of  a 

panicle,  and  is  usually  so  called, 
but  it  is  really  a  thyrse.  Lilac  is 
a  familiar  example  of  a  thyrse.  In 
some  cases,  the  main  cluster  is  de- 
terminate and  the  branches  are  in- 
determinate, as  in  hydrangea  and 
elder.  Such  clusters  also  are  mixed 
clusters. 

246 .  INFLORESCENCE. —The  mode 
or  method  of  flower  arrangement  is 
known  as  the  inflorescence.  That 
is,  the  inflorescence  is  cymose, 
corymbose,  paniculate,  spicate,  soli- 
tary. By  custom,  however,  the 
word  inflorescence  has  come  to  be 
used  for  the  flower-cluster  itself  in 
works  on  descriptive  botany.  Thus 
a  cyme  or  a 
panicle  may 
be  called  an 
inflorescence.  It  will  be  seen  that 
even  solitaiy  flowers  follow  either 
indeterminate  or  determinate  meth- 
ods of  branching. 

247.     THE  FLOWER-STEM.—  The 
stem  of  a  solitary  flower  is  known  as  compa^e'Fig.'w"' 


181.  Determinate  or  cymose 
arrangement.  —  Wild  geranium, 


120 


FLOWER -BRANCHES 


pparently  f.vniose. 


a  peduncle ;  also  the 
general  stem  of  Sifloicer- 
cluster.  The  stem  of 
the  individual  flower  in 
a  cluster  is  a  pedicel, 

248.  In  the  so-called 
stemless  plants  (37)  the 
peduncle  may  arise  di- 
rectly from  the  ground, 
or  crown  of  the  plant, 
as  in  dandelion,  hya- 
cinth (Fig.  174),  gar- 
den daisy  (Fig.  185). 
This  kind  of  peduncle 
is  called  a  scape.  A 
scape  may  bear  one  or 
many  flowers.  It  has 
no  foliage  leaves,  but  it 
mav  have  bracts. 


Review.  — What  is  the  homology  of  flnwor-hranehes?  He 
that  flowers  are  often  borne  in 
clusters?  Explain  what  may  be 
meant  by  a  solitary  flower.  What 
are  the  two  types  of  flower-clns- 
ters?  What  are  corymbose  clus- 
ters? Define  raceme.  Spike. 
Head  and  anthodium.  Catkin. 
Panicle.  Umbel.  Umbellet. 
Corymb.  What  are  cymose  clus- 
ters? What  is  a  cyme?  Glome- 
rule?  Contrast  indeterminate  and 
determinate  modes  of  branching. 
Explain  mixed  clusters.  What 
is  a  thyrse?  What  is  meant  by 
the  word  inflorescence?  Define 
peduncle,  pedicel,  and  scape. 

Note. — In  the  study  of  flower- 
clusters,  it   is   Well  to   select  first  im.   Xhyise  of  hor>.e-chestuut 


REVIEW     ON     FLOWER-BRANCHES 


121 


185    Scapej  of  thetiueoi  Liifjlibb  daisy. 

and  determine  the  method  of  th 
In  some  cases  the  flower-cluster 
ends  in  a  leaf,  suggesting  that 
the  cluster  is  morphologically  a 
leaf;  but  see  whether  there  is 
not  a  joint  between  the  cluster 
and  the  leaf,  showing  that  the 
leaf  is  attached  to  a  branch. 
The  flower- cluster  of  the  tomato 
has  been  greatly  modified  by 
cultivation.  It  was  originally 
distinctly  racemose. 


those  which  are  fairly  typical  of  the 
the  various  classes  discussed  in  the 
preceding  paragraphs.  As  soon  as 
the  main  types  are  well  fixed  in 
the  mind,  random  clusters  should 
be  examined,  for  the  pupil  must 
never  receive  the  impression  that 
all  flower-clusters  follow  the  defini- 
tions in  books.  Clusters  of  some 
of  the  commonest  plants  are  very 
puzzling,  but  the  pupil  should  at 
least  be  able  to  discover  whether 
the  inflorescence  is  determinate  or 
indeterminate. 

In  the  tomato  (Fig.  186)  the 
flower-cluster  is  opposite  the  leaf. 
Examine  blooming  tomato  plants, 
is  inflorescence.    Compare  the  grape. 


186.    Tomato  shoot. 


Llt*45 


CJerauiums  iu  the  school-room  wiiidov 


CHAPTER   XVIII 
THE   PARTS   OF  THE   FLOWER 

249.  The  flower  exists  for  the  purpose  of  producing 
seed.  It  is  probable  that  all  its  varied  forms  and  colors 
contribute  to  this  supreme  end.  These  forms  and  colors 
please  the  human  fancy  and  make  living  the  happier,  but 
the  flower  exists  for  the  good  of  the  plant,  not  for  the 
good  of  man.  The  parts  of  the  flower  are  of  two  general 
kinds  —  those  which  are  directly  concerned  in  the  produc- 
tion of  seeds,  and  those  which  act  as  covering  and  pro- 
tecting organs.  The  former  parts  are  known  as  the  essen- 
tial organs  ;  the  latter  as  the  floral  envelopes. 

250.  ENVELOPES. — The  floral  envelopes  usually  bear  a 
close  resemblance  to  leaves.  These  envelopes  are  very 
commonly  of  two  series  or  kinds — the  outer  and  the  inner. 
The  outer  series,  known  as  the  calyx,  is  usually  smaller 
and  green.  It  usually  comprises  the  outer  cover  of  the 
flower-bud.  The  calyx  is  the  lowest 
whorl  in  Fig.  187.     The  inner  series, 

known  as  the 
corolla,  is  usually 
colored  and  more 
special  or  irregular 
in  shape  than  the 

187.   Flower  of  a  buttercup    ^alyX.          It     is      thc 

in  section.  showy    part    of    the      ^^^-   ^^°^'''"  "^  buttercup. 

flower,   as    a    rule.     The   corolla   is    the    second  or  large 
whorl  in  Fig.  187.     It  is  the  large  part  in  Fig.  188. 

251.  The  calyx  may  be  composed  of  several  leaves. 
Each   leaf    is  a  sepal.     If    it  is  of  one  piece,  it  may  be 

(122) 


FLOKAL     ENVELOPES 


123 


lobed  or  divided,  in  which  case  the  divisions  are  called 

calyx -lobes.     In  like  manner,  the  corolla  may  be  com- 
posed of  petals,  or  it  may  be  of 

one  piece  and  variously  lobed.     A 

calyx  of  one  piece,  no  matter  how 

deeply  lobed,  is  gamosepalous.    A 

corolla  of  one  piece  is  gamopetal- 

ous.      When    these   series    are    of 

separate  pieces,  as  in  Fig.  187,  the 

flower  is  said  to  be  polysepalous . 

and  polypetalous.   Sometimes  both 

series  are  of    separate    parts,  and 

sometimes  only  one  of  them  is  so 

formed. 

252.    The   floral    envelopes    are 

Jiottwlogous  with  leaves.   Sepals  and 

petals,  at   least  when    more    than 

three  or  five,  are  each  in  more  than 

one  whorl,  and  one  whorl  stands  below 
another  so  that  the  parts  overlap. 
They  are  borne  on  the  expanded  or 
thickened  end  of  the  flower-stalk:  this 
end  is  the  torus.  In  Fig.  187  all  the 
parts  are  seen  as  attached  to  the  torus. 
This  part  is  sometimes  called  recep- 
tacle, but  this  word  is  a  common- 
language  term  of  several  meanings,  whereas  torus  has  no 

other  meaning.     Sometimes  one  part  is  at- 
tached to  another  part,  as  in  the  fuchsia 

(Fig.  189)  in  which  the  petals  are  borne 

on  the  calyx -tube. 


189.  Flower  of  fuchsia  in  section. 


190.  Pistil  of  garden  pea. 
the  stamens  being  pulled 
down  in  order  to  disclose 
it;  also  a  section,  showing 
the  single  compartment. 


253.  ESSENTIAL  ORGANS.— The  essential 


Simple  pistils  of 
;ercup,  one  in 


organs  are  of  two  series.  They  are  also  longitudinal  section, 
homologous  with  leaves.  The  outer  series  is  composed  of 
the  stamens.    The  inner  series  is  composed  of  the  pistils. 


124 


THE    PARTS    OF    THE    FLOWER 


J2.  Coiupouud  pis- 
til of  a  St.  John's- 
wort.  It  has  5  ear- 
pels. 


254.    Stamens  bear  the  pollen,   which   is  made  up  of 
grains  or  spores,  each  spore  usually  being  a  single  plant 
cell.     The  stamen  is  of  two  parts,  as  readily 
seen  in  Figs.  187,   188,   189,— the  enlarged 
terminal    part   or  anther,  and   the    stalk    or 
filament.     The  filament  is  often  so 
short  as  to  seem  to  be  absent,  and 
the  anther  is  then  said  to  be 
sessile.     The  anther  bears  the 
pollen  spores.     It  is  made  up 
of   two  or  four  parts   (known 
as    sporangia    or    spore -cases),    which    burst 
and  discharge  the 
pollen.      When 
the  pollen  is  shed, 
the  stamen  dies. 

255.  Pistils  hear 
the  seeds.  The  pis- 
til may  be  of  one 
part  or  compart- 
ment, or  of  many  parts.  The  different  units  or  parts  of 
which  it  is  composed  are  carpels.  Each  carpel  is  homo- 
logous with  a  leaf.  Each 
carpel  bears  one  or  more 
seeds.  A  pistil  of  one  carpel 
is  simple;  of  two  or  more 
carpels,  compound.  Usually 
the  structure  of  the  pistil 
may  be  determined  by  cut- 
ting across  the  lower  or  seed- 
bearing  part.  Figs.  190, 191, 
192  explain.  A  flower  may 
contain  one  carpel  (simple 
pistil)  as  the  pea  (Fig.  190) ; 
several    separate    carpels    or 


Knotweed,  a  very  common  but  inconspicuous  plant 
along  hard  walks  and  roads.  Two  flowers,  en- 
larged, are  shown  at  the  right.  These  flowers  are 
very  small  and  borne  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves. 


The  structure  of  a  plum  blossom. 
se.  sepals;  p.  petals;  sta.  stamens; 
o.  ovary;  s.  style;  st.  stigma.  The 
pistil  consists  of  the  ovary,  style, 
and  stigma.  It  contains  the  seed 
part.  The  stamens  are  tipped  with 
anthers,  in  which  the  pollen  is 
borne.  The  ovary,  o,  ripens  into 
the  fruit. 


CONFORMATION    OF    THE    FLOWER 


125 


simple  pistils,  as  the  buttercup  ;    or  a  compound  pistil,  as 
the  St.  John's- wort  (Fig.  192). 

256.  The  pistil,  whether  simple  or  compound,  has  three 
parts:  the  lowest  or  seed -bearing  part, 
which  is  the  ovary;  the  stigma  at  the 
upper  extremity,  which  is  a  flattened  or 
expanded  surface,  and  usually  roughened 
or  sticky  ;  the  stalk -like  part  or  style, 
connecting  the  ovary  and  stigma.  Some- 
times the  style  is  apparently  wanting, 
and  the  stigma  is  said  to  be  sessile  on 
the  ovary.  These  parts  are  shown  in  the 
fuchsia,  Fig.  189.  The  ovary  or  seed 
vessel  is  at  a.  A  long  style,  bearing  a 
large  stigma,  projects  from  the  flower. 
See,  also.  Figs.  191  and  194. 

257.  CONFORMATION  OF  THE  FLOWER.— 
A  flower  which  has  calyx,  corolla,  sta- 
mens, and  pistils  is  said  to  be  complete ; 
all  others  are  incomplete.     In  some  flowers  both  the  floral 

envelopes  are  wanting:  such  are 
naked.  When  one  of  the  floral 
envelope  series  is  wanting,  the 
remaining  series  is  said  to  be 
calyx,  and  the  flower  is  therefore 
apetalous  (  without 
petals).  Theknotweed 
(Fig.  193),  smart- 
weed,  buckwheat,  elm 
(Fig.  92),  are  ex- 
amples. Some  flow- 
ers lack  the  pistils  :  i9 
these  are  staminate, 
whether  the  envelopes  are  missing  or  not.  Others  lack 
the    stamens :    these    are    pistillate.     Others  have  neither 


Flower  of  giirden 
nasturtium.  Separate 
petal  at  a.  The  calyx  Is 
prolonged  into  a  spur. 


196.    The  five  petals  of  the  pansy, 
detached  to  show  the  form. 


126 


THE    PARTS    OF    THE    FLOWER 


stamens  nor  pistils  :  these  are  sterile  (snowball  and  hy- 
drangea). Those  which  have  both  stamens  and  pistils  are 
perfect,  whether  or  not  the  envelopes  are 
missing.  These  which  lack  either  sta- 
mens or  pistils  are  imperfect  or  diclinous. 
Staminate  and  pistillate  flowers  are  im- 
perfect or  diclinous. 

258.   Flowers    in  which  the   parts   of 
each  series  are  alike  are  said  to  be  regular 
f)     (as  in  Figs.  187,  188,  189).     Those 
in    which    some    parts    are    unlike 
other  parts  of  the  same  series  are 
irregular.    The  irregularity  may  be 

as  in  nasturtium  (Fig.  195) ;  in  corolla 
(Fig.  196,  197) ;  in  the  stamens  (com- 
pare nasturtium,  catnip  Fig.  197,  sage); 
in  the  pistils.  Irregularity  is  most  fre- 
quent in  the  corolla. 


198.   Improvised  stand 
for  lens. 


calyx 

3 


^^^<; 


^ 


Review.— What  is  the  flower  for?  What 
are  the  two  general  kinds  of  organs  in  the 
flower?  What  is  the  homol- 
ogy of  the  flower- parts  ? 
What  are  floral  envelopes  ? 
Calyx  ?  Sepals  ?  Calyx- 
lobes  ?  Corolla  ?  Petals  ? 
Corolln-lobes  ?  Gamosepnl- 
lous  flowers  ?  Gamopetalous  ?  Poly- 
sepalous?  Polypetalous?  Define  torus. 
What  are  the  essential  organs?  Sta- 
men? Filament?  Anther?  Pollen? 
Pistil?  Style?  Stigma?  Ovary?  Car- 
pel ?  Define  a  complete  flower.  In 
what  ways  may  flowers  be  incomplete? 
Explain  perfect  and  imperfect  (or  diclinous)  flowers.  Define  regular 
flowers.      In  what  ways  may  flowers  be  irregular? 

Note. —  One  needs  a  lens  for  the  examination  of  the  flower.  It 
is  best  to  have  the  lens  mounted  on  a  frame,  so  that  the  pupil  has 
both  hands  free  -for  pulling  the  flower  in  pieces.     An  ordinary  pocket 


199. 
Dissect- 
ing needle. 
K  natural 

size.  200.    Dissecting  gl 


REVIEW     ON     FLOWERS 


127 


lens  may  be  mounted  on  a  wire  in  a  block,  as  in  Fig.  198,  A  cork  is 
slipped  on  the  top  of  the  wire  to  avoid  injury  to  the  face.  The  pupil 
should  be  provided  with  two  dissecting  needles  (Fig.  199),  made  by 
securing  an  ordinary  needle  in  a 
pencil-like  stick.  Another  con- 
venient arrangement  is  shown  in 
Fig.  200.  A  small  tin  dish  is  used 
for  the  base.  Into  this  a  stiff  wire 
standard  is  soldered.  The  dish  is 
filled  with  solder,  to  make  it  heavy 
and  firm.  Into  a  cork  slipped  on 
the  standard,  a  cross-wire  is  in- 
serted, holding  on  the  end  a 
jeweler's  glass.  The  lens  can  be  moved  up  and  down  and  sidewise. 
This  outfit  can  be  made  for  about  seventy-five  cents.  Fig.  201  shows 
a  convenient  hand-rest  or  dissecting  stand  to  be  used  under  this  lens. 
It  may  be  16  in.  long,  4  in.  high,  and  4  or  5  in.  broad.  Various  kinds 
of  dissecting  microscopes  are  on  the  market,  and  these  are  to  be 
recomm'^nded  when  they  can  be  afforded. 


201.   Dissecting  stand. 


Odd  bios 


of  one  of  the  passi 


Calyx-lobes  and  petals  are  5.  A  fringe  of  hairs  (or  crown)  grows  from 
the  petals.  The  club-shaped  stigmas  project.  The  stamens,  ,5  in  number, 
stand  inside  the  crown. 


CHAPTER    XIX 

FERTILIZATION    AND    POLLINATION 

259.  FERTILIZATION.— ^^ee(^5  result  from  the  union  of  two 
slements  or  parts.  One  of  these  elements,  a  nucleus  of  a 
plant  cell,  is  borne  in  the  pollen-grain.  The  other  element, 
an  egg-cell,  is  borne  in  the  ovary.  The  pollen -grain  falls 
on  the  stigma  (Fig.  202).  It  absorbs  the  juices  exuded 
by  the  stigma  and  grows  by  sending  out  a  tube  (Fig.  203) . 
This  tube  grows  downward  through  the  style,  absorbing 
food  as  it  goes,  and  finally  reaches  the  egg -cell  in  the 
interior  of  an  ovule  in  the  ovary,  and  fertilization,  or 
union  of  the  two  nuclei,  takes  place.  The  ovule  then 
ripens  into  a  seed.  The  growth  of  the  pollen -tube  is 
often  spoken  of  as  germination  of  the  pollen,  but  it  is  not 
germination  in  the  sense  in  which  the  word  is  used  when 
speaking  of  seeds. 

260.  Better  seeds — that  is,  those 
which  produce  stronger  and  more 
fruitful     plants  —  usually    result 
when  the  pollen  comes  from  another 
flower.     Fertilization  effected  be- 
tween different  flowers  is  cross- 
fertilization  ;    that  resulting  from 
the  application  of  pollen  to  pis- 
202.  B,  pollen  of  plum  escaping    tils   in   the   samc  flowcr  is  close- 
Sratinf^nV^'sll^'n.!    fertilization    or    self-fertilization. 
Enlarged.  ^  ^jQ  j^g  sccu  that  the  cross- ferti- 

lization relationship  may  be  of  many  degrees — between  two 
flowers  in  the  same  cluster,  between  those  in  different  clus- 
ters on  the  same  branch,  between  those  on  different  plants. 
(128) 


^ 


POLLINATION  129 

Usually  fertilization  takes  place  only  between  plants  of 
the  same  species  or  kind. 

261.  In  many  cases  the  pistil  has  the  power  of  select- 
ing pollen  when  pollen  from  two  or  more  sources  is  applied 
to  the  stigma.  Usually  the  foreign  pollen,  if 
from  the  same  kind  of  plant,  grows  and  per- 
forms the  office  of  fertilization,  and  pollen  from 
the  same  flower  perishes.  If,  however,  no 
foreign  pollen  arrives,  the  pollen  from  the 
same  flower  may  finally  grow  and  fertilize 
the  germ. 

262.  In  order  that  the  pollen  may  grow,  the  203 
stigma  must  he  ripe.  At  this  stage  the  stigma  PoUen  gram 
is  usually  moist  and  sometimes  sticky.  A  ripe  Greatly  mag- 
stigma  is    said    to    be   receptive.     The   stigma 

may  remain  receptive  for  several  hours  or  even  days, 
depending  on  the  kind  of  plant,  the  weather,  and  how  soon 
pollen  is  received.  When  fertilization  takes  place,  the 
stigma  dies.  Observe,  also,  how  soon  the  petals  wither 
after  the  stigma  has  received  pollen. 

263.  POLLINATION.— The  transfer  of  the  pollen  from  an- 
ther to  stigma  is  known  as  pollination.  The  pollen  may 
fall  of  its  own  weight  on  the  adjacent  stigma,  or  it  may  be 
carried  from  flower  to  flower  by  wind,  insects,  or  other 
agents.    There  may  be  self-pollination  or  cross-pollination. 

264.  Usualh^  the  pollen  is  discharged  by  the  bursting 
of  the  anthers.  The  commonest  method  of  discharge  is 
through  a  slit  on  either  side  of  the  anther  (Fig.  202). 
Sometimes  it  discharges  through  a  pore  at  the  apex,  as  in 
azalea  (Fig.  204),  rhododendron,  huckleberry,  winter- 
green.  In  some  plants  a  part  of  the  anther  w^all  raises  or 
falls  as  a  lid,  as  in  barbei-ry  (Fig.  205),  blue  cohosh,  May 
apple.  The  opening  of  an  anther  (as  also  of  a  seed -pod) 
is  known  as  dehiscence.  When  an  anther  or  seed -pod 
opens  it  is  said  to  dehisce. 


130 


FERTILIZATION    AND    POLLINATION 


I 


204. 

205. 

Luther    of 

Barberry 

azalea, 

stamen 

opening 

with    an- 

by termi- 

ther open- 

nal pores. 

ing  by  lids. 

265.  Most  floivers  are  so  constructed  as  to  increase  the 
chances  of  cross-pollination.  We  have  seen  (261)  that 
the  stigma  may  have  the  power  of  selecting  foreign  pol- 
len. The  commonest  means  of  insuring  cross- 
pollination  is  the  different  times  of  maturinf/  of 
stamens  and  pistils  in  the  same  floiver. 
In  most  cases  the  stamens  mature  first : 
the  flower  is  then  proterandrous.  When 
the  pistils  mature  first  the  flower  is 
proterogynous.  {Aner,  atidr,  is  a  Greek 
root  often  used,  in  combinations,  for 
stamen,  and  gyne  for  pistil.)  The  dif- 
ference in  time  of  ripening  may  be  an 
hour  or  two,  or  it  may  be  a  day.  The 
ripening  of  the  stamens  and  pistils  at  different  times  is 
known  as  dichogamy,  and  flowers  of  such  character  are 
said  to  be  dichogamous.  There  is  little  chance  for  dicho- 
gamous  flowers  to  pollinate  themselves.  Many  flowers  are 
imperfect ly  dichoga moHS — some  of  the  anthers  mature  simul- 
taneously with  the 
pistils,  so  that  there 
is  chance  for  self- 
pollination  in  case 
foreign  pollen  does 
not  arrive.  Even 
when  the  stigma  re- 
ceives pollen  from 
its  own  flower, 
cross -fertilization 
may  result  (261). 
The    hollyhock    is 

206.  Flower  of  hollyhock ;  proterandrous.  nrotcrandrOUS 

Fig.  206  shows  a  flower  recently  expanded.  The  center  is 
occupied  by  the  column  of  stamens.  In  Fig.  207,  showing 
an  older  flower,  the  long  styles  are  conspicuous. 


POLLINATION 


131 


266.  Some  flowers  have  so  developed  as  to  prohibit  self- 
pollinatio)).  Very  irregular  flowers  are  usually  of  this  cate- 
gory. Regular  flow- 
ers usually  depend 
on  dichogamy  and 
the  selective  power 
of  the  pistil  to  in- 
sure crossing.  Floiv- 
ers  ivhich  are  very 
irregular  and  pro- 
vided with  nectar  and 
strong  perfume  are 
usually  pollinated  by 
insects.  Gaudy  col- 
oider  flower  of  hoUyhock.  qys  probably  attract 

insects  in  many  cases,  but  perfume  appears  to  be  a  greater 
attraction.  The  insect  visits  the  flower  for  the  nectar  (for 
the  making  of  honey)  and  may  unknowingly  carry  the 
pollen.  Spurs  and  sacs  in  the  flower 
are  nectaries,  but  in  spurless  flowers 
the  nectar  is  usually  secreted  in  the 
bottom  of  the  flower-cup.  Flowers 
which  are  polli- 
nated by  insects 
are  said  to  be 
entomophilous 
("insect  loving"). 
Fig.  208  shows  a 
larkspur.  The  en- 
velopes are  sepa- 
rated in  Fig.  209. 
The  long  spur  at 
once  suggests  in- 
sect pollination. 
project   into   this  spur,  apparently  serving    to  guide    th^ 


208.   Flower  of  larkspur. 

The  spur  is  a  sepal 


19.  Envelopes  of  a  larkspur. 
There  are  five  wide  sepals,  the 
upper  one  being  spurred. 
There  are  four  small  petals. 

Two  hollow  petals 


132 


FERTILIZATION    AND    POLLINAl  ION 


bee's  tongue.  The  two  smaller  petals,  in  front,  are  differ- 
ently colored  and  perhaps  serve  the  bee  in  locating  the 
nectary.  The  stamens  ensheath  the  pistils 
^^^^%^^  (Fig.  210).  As  the  insect  stands  on  the 
""*  '      flower  and  thrusts  his  head  into  its  center, 

the  envelopes  are  pushed  downward  and 
outward  and  the  pistil  and  stamens  come 
in  contact  with  his  abdomen.     Since  the 


210.  stamens  of  lark 
spur,  surrouiuliiit 
the  pistils. 


flower     is     pro- 

terandrous,    the 

pollen  which  the 

pistils  receive 

from    the    bee's 

abdomen    must 

come  from  an- 
other flower. 
Note  a  somewhat  similar  ar- 
rangement in  the  toad -flax  or 
butter -and -eggs  (Fig.  211). 

267.  Many  flowers  are  polli- 
nated hy  the  ivhul.  They  are  said 
to  be  anemophilous  ( "  wind- 
loving").  Such  flowers  produce 
great  quantities  of  pollen,  for 
much  of  it  is  wasted.  They  usu- 
ally have  broad  stigmas,  which 
expose  large  surface  to  the 
wind.  They  are  usually  lacking 
in  gaudy  colors  and  in  perfume. 
Grasses  and  pine  ti-ees  are  typi- 
cal examples  of  anemophilous 
plants. 

268.  In  many  cases  cross  -  pollination  is  insured 
because  the  stamens  and  pistils  are  in  different  flowers 
(diclinous,    257).       When    the    staminate    and    pistillate 


Toad-flax  is  an  entomophilous 
flower. 


POLLINATION 


133 


n2.  8tamin;ite  catkins  of  oak.  Tlie  pist 
late  flowers  are  in  tlie  leaf  axi 
and  not  shown  in  this  picture. 


flowers  are  on  the  same  plant,  e.  g.,  oak  (Fig.  212),  bcocli, 
chestnut,  hazel,  walnut,  hickory,  the  plant  is  moncecious 
("in  one  house")-  When 
they  are  on  different  plants 
(poplar  and  willow,  Fig. 
213),  the  plant  is  dioecious 
("in  two  houses").  Mona'- 
cious  and  dioecious  plants 
may  be  pollinated  by  wind 
or  insects,  or  other  agents. 
They  are  usually  wind -polli- 
nated, although  willows  are 
often,  if  not  mostly,  insect- 
pollinated.  The  Indian  corn 
(Fig.  214)  is  a  monoecious  plant.  The  staminate  flowei-s 
are  in  a  terminal  panicle  (tassel).  The  pistillate  flow- 
ers are  in  a  dense  spike  (ear),  inclosed  in  a  sheath  or 
husk.  Each  "silk"  is  a  style.  Each  pistillate  flower  pro- 
duces a  kernel  of  corn.  Sometimes  a  few  pistillate  flowei-s 
are  borne  in  the  tassel  and  a 
few  staminate  flowers  on  the 
tip  of  the  ear. 

269.  Although  most  flowers 
are  of  such  character  as  to 
insure  or  increase  the  chances 
of  cross -pollination,  there  are 
some  ivJiich  absolutely  forbid 
crossing.  These  flowers  are 
usually  borne  beneath  or  on 
the  ground,  and  they  lack 
showy  colors  and  perfumes. 
They  are  known  as  cleis- 
togamous  flowers  (meaning 
lilt  has  normal  showy  flowers 
which  maybe  inseet-pollinated,  and  in  addition  is  provided 


2i:j.  Catkins  of  a  willow.  A  staminate 
flower  is  shown  at  s,  and  a  pistil- 
late flower  at  p.  The  staminate 
and  pistillate  are  on  different 
plants. 

"hidden  flowers").     The  i 


134 


FERTILIZATION   AND    POLLINATION 


21)  Iiiibni  rem  i 
iii()ii(F(  Kms  pi  lilt 
\vi  t  li  stciininate 
rtoweis  borne  in 
the  tassel  and 
pistillate  tlowers 
borne  in  the  ear. 


with  these  degenerate  flowers.  Only  a  few 
plants  bear  cleistogamous  flowers.  Hog- 
peanut,  common  blue  violet,  fringed  win- 
tergreen,  and  dalibarda  are  the  best 
subjects  in  the  northern  states.  Fig.  215 
shows  a  cleistogamous  flower  of  the  hog- 
peanut  at  a.  Above  the  true  roots,  slen- 
der rhizomes  bear  these  flowers,  which  are 
provided  with  a  cal^'x  and  a  curving 
corolla  which  does  not  open.  Inside  are 
the  stamens  and  pistils.  The  pupil  must 
not  confound  the  nodules  on  the  roots  of 
hog -peanut  with  the  cleistogamous  flow- 
ers :  these  nodules  are  concerned  in  the 
appropriation  of  food.  Late  in  summer 
the  cleistogamous  flowers  may  be  found 
just  underneath  the  mould.  They  never 
rise  above  ground.  The  following  sum- 
mer one  may  flnd  a  seedling  plant  with 
the  remains  of  the  old  cleistogamous 
flower  still  adhering  to  the  root.  The 
hog-peanut  is  a  common  low  twiner  in 
woods.  It  also  bears  racemes  of  small 
Cleistogamous  flowers  usually  appear 
They  seem  to  insure 


pea -like    flowers 

after  the  showy  flowers  have  passed 

a   crop   of   seed    by    a 

method  which  expend 

little    of     the    plant' 

energy.     See  Fig.  216 


Review. — "What  is  fer- 
tilization ?  Pollination? 
Define  cross-  and  self-pol- 
lination. Which  gives  the 
better  results,  and  how?  What  is  meant  by  the  selective  power  of  the 
pistil?  Describe  a  receptive  pistil.  Exhibit  one.  By  what  agents  is 
cross-pollination  secured?    How  la  pollen  discharged?    What  is  meant 


215.    Hog-peannt,  showing  a  leaf,  and  a 
cleistogamous  tiower  at  o. 


KEVIEW     ON     POLLINATION 


135 


by  the  word  dehiscence?  What  do  you  understand  by  dichogamy' 
What  is  its  oflfice?  How  frequent  is  it?  What  aieentomophilous  flow- 
ers ?     Anemophilous  ?      Exhibit 


or  explain  one  of  each.  What 
is  the  usual  significance  of  ir- 
regularity in  flowers?  Where  is 
the  nectar  borne  ?  What  are 
monoecious  and  dioecious  plants? 
Cleistogamous  flowers? 

Note. — The  means  by  which 
cross-pollination  is  insured  are 
absorbing  subjects  of  study. 
It  is  easy  to  give  so  much  time 
and  emphasis  to  the  subject, 
however,  that  an  inexperienced 
observer  comes  to  feel  that  per- 
fect mechanical  adaptation  of 
means  to  end  is  universal  in 
plants,  whereas  it  is  not.  One 
is  likely  to  lose  or  to  overlook 
the  sense  of  proportions  and  to 
form  wrong  judgments. 

In  studying  cross-pollina- 
tion, one  is  likely  to  look  first 
for  devices  which  prohibit  the 
stigma  from  receiving  pollen 
from  its  own  flower,  but  the 
better  endeavor  is  to  determine 
whether  there  is  any  means  to  insure  the  application  of  foreign  pol- 
len ;  for  the  stigma  may  receive  both  but  utilize  only  the  foreign 
pollen.  Bear  in  mind  that  irregular  and  odd  forms  in  flowers,  strong 
perfume,  bright  colors,  nectar,  postulate  insect  visitors;  that  incon- 
spicuous flowers  with  large  protruding  stigmas  and  much  dry  powdery 
pollen  postulate  wind-transfer;  that  regular  and  simple  flowers  de- 
pend largely  on  dichogamy,  whether  wind-  or  insect-pollinated.  Most 
flowers  are  dichogamous. 


ne.  C  )tninon  blue  violet.  The  fnmUiar 
flowers  are  shown,  iiiitural  size.  Tlie 
corolla  is  spurred.  Late  in  the  season, 
eleistogamous  flowers  are  often  borne 
on  the  surface  of  the  ground.  A  small 
one  is  shown  at  a.  A  nearly  mature 
pod  is  shown  at  6.  Both  a  and  b  are 
one-third  natural  size. 


Funuelform  corollas 


CHAPTER  XX 
PARTICULAR   FORMS   OF   FLOWERS 

270.  GENERAL  FORMS.  —  Flowers  vary  wonderfully  in 
size,  form,  color,  and  in  shapes  of  the  different  parts.  These 
variations  are  characteristic  of  the  species  or  kind  of 
plant.  The  most  variable  part  is  the  corolla.  lu  many 
cases,  the  disguises  of  the  parts  are  so  great  as  to  puzzle 
botanists.  Some  of  the  special  forms,  notably  in  the 
orchids,  seem  to  have  arisen  as  a  means  of  adapting  the 
flower  to  pollination  by  particular  kinds  of  insects.  A  few 
well-marked  forms  are  discussed  below  in  order  to  illus- 
trate how  they  may  differ  among  themselves. 

271.  When  in  doubt  as  to  the  parts  of  any  flower,  look 
first  for  the  pistils  and  stamens.  Pistils  may  be  told  by 
the  ovary  or  young  seed -case.  Stamens  may  be  told  by  the 
pollen.  If  there  is  but  one  series  in  the  floral  envelope, 
the  flower  is  assumed  to  lack  the  corolla:  it  is  apetalous 
(257).  The  calyx,  however,  in  such  cases,  may  look  like  a 
corolla,  e.  g.,  buckwheat,  elm,  sassafras,  smartweed,  knot- 
weed  (Fig.  193).  The  parts  of  flowers  usually  have  a 
numerical  relation  to  each  other, —  they  are  oftenest  in  3's 
or  5's  or  in  multiples  of  these  numbers.  The  pistil  is 
often  an  exception  to  this  order,  however,  although  its 
compartments  or  carpels  may  follow  the  rule.  Flowers  on 
the  plan  of  5  are  said  to  be  pentamerous  ;  those  on  the 
plan  of  3  are  trimerous  {merons  is  from  Greek,  signifying 
"member").  In  descriptive  botanies  these  words  are  often 
written  5-merous  and  3 -merons. 

272.  The  corolla  often  assumes  very  definite  or  distinct 
forms  when  gamopetflous.     It  may  have  a  long  tube  with 

(136) 


GENERAL     FORMS 


137 


Fuunelform  flower  of 
morning-glory. 


a  wide- flaring  limb,  when  it  is  said  to  be  funnelform, 
as  in  morning-glory  (Fig,  217)  and  pumpkin.  If  the  tube 
is  very  narrow  and  the  limb  stands 
at  right  angles  to  it,  the  corolla  is 
salverform,  as  in  phlox  (Fig.  218). 
If  the  tube  is  very  short  and  the  limb 
wide -spreading  and  nearly  circular  in 
outline,  the  corolla  is  rotate  or  wheel- 
shaped,  as  in  potato  (Fig.  219). 

273.  A  gamopetalous  corolla  or 
gamosepalous  calyx  is  often  cleft  in 
such  way  as  to  make  two  prominent 
parts.  Such  parts  are  said  to  be 
lipped  or  labiate.     Each  of   the   lips 

or  lobes  may  be  notched  or  toothed. 
In  5-merous  flowers,  the  lower  lip  is 
usually  3-lobed  and  the  upper  one 
2-lobed.  Labiate  flowers  are  char- 
acteristic of  the  mint  family  (Fig. 
197),  and  the  family  therefore  is 
called  the  Labiatae.  (Properly,  labi- 
ate means  merely  lipped,  without 
specifying  the  number  of 
lobes;    l^ut   if   is   commonly 

designate  2-lipped  flowers.)     Strongly  2-parted 

polypetalous  flowers  may  be  said  to  be  labiate; 

but  the  term  is  oftenest  used  for  gamopetalous 

corollas. 

274.  Labiate  gamopetalous  flowers  which  are 
closed  in  the  throat  (or  entrance  to  the  tube) 
are  said  to  be  grinning  or  personate  (personate 
means  masJied,  or  person-lil-e) .  Snapdragon  is  a 
typical  example  (Fig.  220);  also  toad-flax  or 
butter -and -eggs  (Fig.  211),  and  many  related  plants. 
Personate  flowers  usually  have  definite  relations  to  insect 


Rotate  flowers  of 
potato. 


lips   or 
used  to 


138 


PAETICULAR  FORMS  OF  FLOWERS 


pollination.     Observe  how  a  bee  forces  his  head  into  the 
elosed  throat  of  the  toad-fiax. 

275.  LILY  FLOWERS.— In  plants  of  the  lily 
family    (Liliace^)    the    flowers   are    typically 
3-merous,  having    three  sepals,  three  petals, 
six  stamens  and  a   3-carpelled   pistil.      The 
parts   in  the  different  series  are  distinct  from 
I  ^^^-"^        each  other  (excepting  the  carpels,)  and  mostly 
I  if/^         free  from  other  series.    The  sepals  and  petals 
M**V^^      are  so  much  alike  that  they  are  distinguished 
W     n^/k  c^^^^fiy  ^y  position,  and  for  this  reason  the 
/  /-^Sm^  words  calyx  and   corolla  are  not  used,   but 
f'miw  tli^  floral  envelopes  are  called  the  perianth 

and  the  parts  are  segments.  Flowers  of  lilies 
and  trilliums  (Fig.  221)  answer  these  details. 
Not  all  flowers  in  the  lily  family  answer  in  all 
ways  to  this  description.  The  term  perianth 
1^  is  used  in  other  plants  than  the  Liliacea?. 

■  276.   PAPILIONACEOUS  FLOWERS.  —  In     the 

pea  and  bean  tribes  the  flower  has  a  special 
form  (Fig.  222).  The 
calyx  is  a  shallow  5 -toothed  tube. 
The  corolla  is  composed  of  four 
pieces, — the  large  expanded  part 
at  the  back,  known  as  the  stand- 
ard or  banner ;  the  two  hooded 
side  pieces,  known  as  the  wiitg^  ; 
the  single  boat -shaped  part  be- 
neath the  wings,  known  as  the  Ixevl. 
The  keel  is  supposed  to  represent 
two  united  petals,  since  the  calyx 
and  stamens  are  in  5's  or  multi- 
ples of  5;  moreover,  it  is  com- 
posed of  two  distinct  parts  in  cassia  (Fig.  223)  and 
some   other  plants    of   the    pea    family.      Flowers  of   the 


220. 

Personate  flowers 

of  snapdragon. 


221.    Flower  of  trillium. 


PAPILIONACEOUS     FLOWERS 


139 


223. 

Cassia  flower, 

showing  the 

separate 

keel  petals. 


pea  shape  are  said  to  be  papil- 
ionaceous (Latin  papilio,  a  but- 
terfly). 

277.  Flowers  of  the  pea  and 
its  kind  have  a  pecu- 
liar arrangement  of 
stamens.  The  sta- 
mens are  10,  of  which 
9  are  united  into  a 
tube  which  incloses 
the  pistil.  The  tenth 
stamen  lies  on  the  upper  edge 
of  the  pistil.  The  remains  of 
these  stamens  are  seen  in  Fig. 
190.  The  stamens  are  said  to 
be  diadelphous  ( "  in  two  brother- 
hoods") when  united  into  two 
groups.  Stamens  in  one  group 
w  o  u  1  d 
be  called 

monadelphous,   and   this  arrange- 

nient   occurs  in   some  members  of 

the  Leguminosa^  or  pea  family. 

278.   MALLOW    FLOWERS.  —  The 

flowers   of  the   mallow  family   are 

well    represented    in    single   holly- 
hocks  (Figs.  20G,  207)   and  in  the 

little   plant   (Fig.  224)    known    as 

"  cheeses."     The  peculiar  structure 

is  the  column  formed  by  the  united 

filaments,  the  inclosed  styles,  and 

the  ring  of  ovaries  at  the  bottom 

of  the  style -tube.      The  flower  is  224.  comraon  maiiow,  a  tr 

5-merous.       Count     the     ovaries.  ?ruul'rii:es'u,:'na:nes' 

They     sit     on     the      torus,     but     are  ;eheeses"an.l"  shirt  button 


222.    Papilionaceous  flowers 
Sweet  pea. 


140 


PARTICULAR  FORMS  OF  FLOWERS 


united  in  tlie  center  bj'  tlie  base  of  the  style-tube,  which 
forms  a  cone-shaped  body  that  separates  from  the  torus 
when  the  fruit  is  ripe.  Do  all  of  the  ovaries  develop,  or 
are  some  crowded  out  in  the  struggle  for  existence?  The 
calyx  IS  often  reinforced  by  bracts,  which  look  like  an 
extra  calyx.  These  bracts  form  an  involucre.  An  in- 
volucre is  a  circle  or  whorl  of  bracts  standing  just  below 

a  flower  or  a  flower - 
cluster.  The  umbel  of 
wild  carrot  (Fig.  180) 
has  an  involucre  below 
it.  A  large  family  of 
plants,  known  as  the 
Malvaceae  or  Mallow 
family,  has  flowers  simi- 
lar to  those  of  the  holly- 
hock. To  this  family 
belong  marsh  mallow, 
althea,  okra,  cotton.  Ob- 
serve that  even  though 
the  hollyhock  is  a  great 
tall- growing  showy  plant 
and  the  "cheeses"  is  a 
weak  trailing  inconspic- 
uous plant,  they  belong 
to  the  same  family,  as 
shown  by  the  structure 

orchid  family.  of    the    floWCrS. 

279.  ORCHID  FLOWERS.— The  flowers  of  orchids  vary 
wonderfully  in  shape,  size,  and  color.  Most  of  them  are 
specially  adapted  to  insect  pollination.  The  distinguish- 
ing feature  of  the  orchid  flower,  however,  is  the  union  of 
stamens  and  pistil  in  one  body,  known  as  the  column.  In 
Fig.  225  the  stemless  lady's -slipper  is  shown.  The  flower 
is  3-merons,     One  of  the  petals  is  developed  into  a  great 


225.    A  l!i(ij 


OltCniD    AND     SPATIIE     FLOWERS 


141 


22G.  Jaek-inthe-pnl- 
pit.  -'Jack"  is  the 
spjidix  ;  the  "pul- 
pit "  is  the  spatlie. 


sac  or  "slipper,"  known  as  the  lip.  Over  the  opening  of 
this  sac  the  column  hangs.  The  column  is  shov^n  in  de- 
tail: a  is  the  stigma;  d  is  an  anther,  and  there  is  another 
similar  one  on  the  opposite  side,  but  not 
shown  in  the  picture;  &  is  a  petal -like  sta- 
men, which  does  not  produce  pollen.  In 
most  other  orchids  there  is  one  good 
anther.  In  orchids  the  pollen  is  usuallj^ 
borne  in  adherent  masses,  one  or  two 
masses  occupying  each  sporangium  of  the 
anther,  whereas  in  most  plants  the  pollen 
is  in  separate  grains.  These  pollen -masses 
are  known  technically  as  pollinia.  Orchids 
from  the  tropics  are  much  grown  in  choice 
greenhouses.  Several  species  are  common 
in  woods  and  swamps  in  the  northern 
states  and  Canada. 

280.  SPATHE  FLOWERS.— In  many  plants,  very  simple 
(often  naked  flowers)  are  borne  in  dense,  more  or  less 
fleshy  spikes,  and  the  spike  is  inclosed  in  or  attended  by  a 
leaf,  sometimes  coi'olla-like,  known  as  a 
spathe.  The  spike  of  flowers  is  techni- 
cally known  as  a  spadix.  This  type  of 
flower  is  characteristic  of  the  great  arum 
family,  which  is  chiefly  tropical.  The 
commonest  wild  representatives  in  the 
North  are  Jack -in -the -pulpit  or  Indian 
turnip  (Fig.  226)  and  skunk  cabbage.- 
In  the  former  the  flowers  are  all 
diclinous  and  naked.  The  pistillate 
flowers     (comprising    only    a    1-loculed 

227.    Wild  aster,  with  six  .  ,  ,      , ,          ,  „       , 

heads,  each  contain-  ovary)    are    bomc   at   the   base  of   the 

ing several  florets,    gp^dix,  and  the  stamiuate  flowers  (each 

of   a    few  anthers)    are  above  them.      The   ovaries    ripen 

into  red   berries.      In  the  skunk  cabbage  all  the  flowers 


142 


PARTICULAll    FORMS     OF     FLOWERS 


are  perfect  and  have  four  sepals.     The  common  calla  lily 
is  a  good  example  of  this  type  of  inflorescence. 

281.   COMPOSITOUS  FLOWERS.— The   head    (anthodium) 
or  so-called  "flower"  of  snnflower  (Fig.  177),  thistle,  aster 
(Fig.   227),    dandelion,    daisy, 
chrysanthemum,  golden -rod,  is 
composed   of    several    or    many 
^^f^^,  little  floivers,  or  florets.     These 

^M4uV//m',  florets   are  inclosed  in   a  more 

or  less  dense  and  nsualh-  green 


228.   Head  of  pasture  thistle,  showiutj 
the  high  prickly  involucre. 


•JJi).  LouKitudinal  section       230.  Floret  of 
of  thistle  head.  thistle. 


involucre.  In  the  thistle  (Fig.  228)  this  involucre  is 
prickly.  A  longitudinal  section  (Fig.  229)  discloses  the 
florets,  all  attached  at  bottom  to  a  common  torus,  and 
densely  packed  in  the  involucre.  The  pink  tips  of  these 
florets  constitute  the  showy  part  of  the  head. 

282.  Each  floret  of  the  thistle  (Fig.  230)  is  a  complete 
flower.  At  a  is  the  ovary.  At  6  is  a  much -divided  plumy 
calyx,  known  as  the  pappus.  The  corolla  is  long-tubed, 
rising  above  the  pappus,  and  is  enlarged  and  5-lobed  at 


COMPOSITOUS    FLOWERS 

the  top,  c.  The  style  projects  at  e. 
The  five  anthers  are  united  about 
the  style  in  a  ring  at  d.  Such 
anthers  are  said  to  be  synge- 
nesious.  These  are  the  various 
parts  of  the  florets  of  the  Com- 
positae.  In  some  cases  the  pappus 
is  in  the  form  of  barbs,  bristles,  or 
scales,  and  sometimes  it  is  want- 
ing. The  pappus,  as  we  shall  see 
later,  assists  in  distributing  the 
seed.  Often  the  florets  are  not  all 
alike.  The  corolla  of  those  in  the 
„  outer      circles 

maybe   devel-   2'51.    cornflower  or  bachelor's  but- 
ton, in  which  the  outer  flo- 
Oped     into     a  rets  are  large  and  showy. 

Jong,  strap- lil-e  or  tuhular  part,  and 
the  head  then  has  the 
appearance  of  being  one 
flower  with  a  border  of 
petals.  Of  such  is  the 
sunflower  (Fig.  177), 
aster  (Fig.  227),  bache- 
lor's button  or  corn 
flower  (Fig.  231),  and 
field  daisy  (Fig.  169). 
These  long  corolla -limbs  are  called  -^ 
rays.  In  some  cultivated  composites,  v^ 
all  the  florets  may  develop  rays,  as  in  "^  ^  j'?  ?  =^j 
the  dahlia  (Fig.  232),  and  chrysan-  %V^lv>Jxi^ 
themum.  In  some  species,  as  dande-  ^PW/^>^!*^^  ^V 
lion,  all  the  florets  naturally  have 
rays.  Syngenesious  arrangement  of 
anthers  is  the  most  characteristic  sin- 

„,       »      ,  £     -1  •-  -^^-   double  larkspur 

gle  teature  of  the  composites.  compare  with  Fie.  aoa. 


2.')2.  Double  dahlias.  In  one,  the  florets  have  de- 
veloped flat  rays.  In  the  other,  the  florets 
appear  as  inroUed  tubes. 


144 


PAKTICULAR     FORMS    OF     FLOWERS 


283.  ATTACHMENT  OF  THE  FLOWER  PARTS.— The  parts 
of  the  flower  may  all  be  borne  directly  on  the  torus,  or 
one  part  may  be  borne  on  another.       With  reference  to 


234.   Narcissus  or  daffodil.     Single  flower  at  the  rlglit ;  double  flowers  at  the  left. 

the  pistil  or  ovary,  the  stamens  and  envelopes  may  be  at- 
tached in  three  ways  :  hypogynous,  all  free  and  attached 
under  the  ovary,  as  in  Fig.  187  ;  perigynous,  or  attached 
to  a  more  or  less  evident  cup  surrounding  the  ovary,  as 

in  Fig.  194;  epigy- 
nous,  some  or  all  of 
them  apparently 
borne  on  the  ovary, 
as  in  Fig.  189. 

284.  DOUBLE  FLOW- 
ERS. —  Under  the 
stimulus  of  cultiva- 
tion and  increased 
food -supply,  flowers 
tend  to  become  dou- 
„    ,      .  ,    ,         , ,  „    ble.     True    doubling 

235.  Petals  arising  from  the  staminal  column  of  holly- 
hock; and  accessory  petals  in  the  corolla- whorl,       arises   in   two     ways, 


DOUBLE    FLOWEES 


145 


morphologically :  (1)  stamens  or  pistils  may  change  to  petals 
(Fig.  235);  (2)  adventitious  or  (iceessori/  petals  ma  if  arise 
in  the  circle  of  pet- 
als. Both  of  these 
categories  may  be 
present  in  the  same 
flower,  as  in  Figs. 
233,  234,  and  235. 
lu  the  full -double 
hollyhock,  the  pet- 
als derived  from  the 
staminal  column  are 
shorter  and  make 
a  rosette  in  the  cen- 
ter of  the  flower. 
Other  modifications 
of  flowers  are  sometimes  known  as  doubling.  For  ex- 
ample, double    dahlias    (Fig.  232),  chrysanthemums    and 

sunflowers  are  forms  in 
which  the  disk  flowers  have 
developed  rays.  The  snow- 
ball is  another  case.  In  the 
wild  plant  (Fig.  236)  the  ex- 
tei'iial  flowers  of  the  cluster 
are  large  and  sterile.  In 
t])(^  cultivated  plant  (Fig. 
237)  all  the  flowers  have  be- 
come large  and  sterile.  Hy- 
drangea is  a  similar  case. 


236.   The  wild  or  original  form  of  the  snowball. 
Outer  flowers  larger. 


Review.  —  How  do  flowers 
vary  in  form?  How  are  the  var- 
ious parts  determined  iiv  disguised 
flowers?  "What  are  5-merong  and 
3-meron3  flowers?  What  are  some  of  the  common  forms  of  gamo- 
petalous  corollas?  Describe  a  labiate  flower.  Personate.  Lily  flower. 
Papilionaceous  flower.     What  are  monadelpnous  and  diadelphous  sta- 


237.  CnlMv.atpd  sTiowball,  in  which  nil  the 
flowprs  in  the  clnstor  ha'.'<>  hocome 
larae  and  showy. 


146 


PARTICULAR    FORMS     OF     FLOWERS 


lueus?    Describe  a  mallow  flower.   Orcliid  flower.    Spathaeeous  flower. 


Compositous  flower. 


Spikes  and  flowers  of 
a.  beardless  wheat  ;  (I.  I 
wheat  ;  i.spikelet  in  liU 


What  do  you  understand  by  the  terms  hypo- 
gynous,  perigynous,  epigynous?  How  do 
flowers  become  double?  What  is  meant 
by  doubling  in  compositous  flowers?  In 
snowball  and  hydrangea? 

Note. — The  flowers  of  grasses  are 
too  difiieult  for  the  beginner,  but  if  the 
pupil  wishes  to  understand  them  he  may 
begin  with  wheat  or  rye.  The  "head"  or 
spike  of  wheat  is  made  up  of  flowers 
and  bracts.  The  flowers  are  in  little 
clusters  or  spifce?e^s( often  called  "breasts" 
by  farmers).  One  of  the  spikelets  is 
shown  at  b,  in  Fig.  238.  Each  spikelet 
contains  from  1-4  flowers  or  florets.  The 
structure  of  the  flower  is  similar  to  that 
of  rye  (  Fig.  239)  and  other  grasses.  The 
pistil  has  2  feathery  pro- 
truded stigmas  (wind- 
pollinated)  shown  at  a, 
Fig.  239.  There  are  3 
stamens,  b,  b,  b.  There 
are  minute  scales  in  the 
base  of  the  flower  (not 
shown  in  the  ctit)  which 
probably  represent  true 
floral  envelopes.  These 
aie  lodicules.  The  larger 
parts,  c,  (1,  are  bracts. 
The  larger  one,  d,  is  the 


wheit. 
)earded 
)oni :   c. 


Krain;  f>,  single  spikelet  on  a  ma      „  .  ,  i    .. 

ture  head.    The  beards  in  d  are     noiccring    ghtnte,    and    the 

awns  on  the  flowering  ghimes.      gjuaUgr,     c,     Is     a     palet. 

The  entire  spikelet  is  also  subtended  by  two  brads 
or gluDies;  these  are  the  two  lowermost  parts  in  h,  Fig. 
238.  The  glumes  of  the  spikelet,  and  flowering  glumes 
and  palets  of  the  flowers,  constitute  the  chaff  when 
•wheat  is  threshed. 


so.  Flower  of  rye. 
a,  stigma;  b,  b,  b, 
stamens;  c 
palet;  d,  flower- 
ing glume. 


CHAPTER   XXI 


FRUITS 


285.  The  ripened  ovary,  with  its  attachments,  is  known 
as  the  fruit.  It  contains  the  seeds.  If  the  pistil  is  simple, 
or  of  one  carpel,  the  fruit  also  will  have  one  compartment. 
If  the  pistil  is  compound,  or  of  more  than  one  carpel,  the 
fruit  usually  has  an  equal  number  of  compartments.  The 
compartments  in  pistil  and  fruit  are  known  as  locules 
(from  Latin  locus,  meaning  "a  place"). 

286.  Tlie  simplest  kind  of  fruit  is  a  ripened  l-locided 
ovary.  The  first  stage  in  com- 
plexity is  a  ripened  2-  or 
many  -  loculed  ovary.  Very 
complex  forms  may  arise  by 
the  attachment  of  other  parts 
to  the  ovary.  Sometimes  the 
style  persists  and  becomes  a 
beak  (mustard  pods,  dentaria, 
Fig.  240)  or  a  tail  as  in  clema- 
tis ;  or  the  calyx  may  be  at- , 
tached  to  tlie  ovary;  or  the 
ovary  may  \)v  iinlx'dded  in  the 
receptacle,  and  ovary  and  re- 
ceptacle together  constitute 
the  fruit ;  or  an  involucre 
may  become  a  part  of  the 
fruit,  as  possibly  in    the   w;il- 

nut      and      lliekory.      and      cup         24U.    Ikntaria,  or  loothwort,  iufruil. 

of  the  acorn.     The  chestnut  (Fig.  241)  and  the  beech  bear 

a  prickly   involucre,  but  the  nuts,  or  true  fruits,  are  not 

(147) 


148 


FRUITS 


grown  tast  to  it,  and  the  involucre  can  scarcely  be  calit^d 

a  part  of  the  fruit.     A  ripened  ovary  is  a  pericarp.     A 

pericarp  to  which  other  parts  adhere,  has   been  called  an 

,^^,^  accessory     or     rein- 

^"'^'■'  287.     Some   fruits 

are  dehiscent,  or  split 
open  at  maturity(264) 
and  liberate  the  seeds; 
others  are  indehis- 
cent,  or  do  not  open . 
A  dehiscent  pericarp 
is  called  a  pod.  The 
parts  into  which  such 
a  pod  breaks  or  splits 
are  known  as  valves. 
In  indehiseent  fruits 
the  seed  is  liberated 
by  the  decay  of  the 
envelope,  or  bj'  the  rupturing  of  the  envelope  by  the  ger- 
minating seed.  Indehiseent  winged  pericarps  are  known 
as  samaras  or  key-fruits  (consult  Chapter  XXII).  Maple, 
elm   (Fig.  93),  and  ash   (Fig.  127)  are  examples. 

288.  PERICARPS. — The  simplest  pericarp  is  a  dry,  one- 
seeded,  indehis(ient  body.  It  is  known  as  an  akene.  A 
head  of  akenes  is  shown  in  Fig.  242,  and  the 
structure  is  explained  in  Fig.  191.  Akenes  may 
be  seen  in  buttercup,  hepatica,  anemone, 
smartweed,  buckwheat. 

289.  A  1-loculed  pericarp  which  dehisces 
along  the  front  edge  (that  is,  the  inner  edge, 
next  the  center  of  the  flower)  is  a  follicle.  The 
fruit  of  the  larkspur  (Fig.  243)  is  a  follicle. 
There  are  usually  five  of  th«se  fruits  (sometimes  three 
or  four)  in  each  larkspur  flower,  each  pistil  ripening  into 


241.  Chestnuts  are  ripened  ovaries.  They  are  borne  in 
a  prickly  involucre.  The  remains  of  the  catkin 
of  staminate  flowers  is  seen  in  the  picture. 


242.  Akenes 
of  butter- 
cup. 


248.   Capsuies  of  datura  or  jlmson  weed. 
Septicidal  and  loeulicidal. 


244.  Young  follicles  ot 
larkspur  Normal 
ly,  the  flower  has  5 
pistils,  but  some  are 
lost  in  the  struggle 
for  existence. 


2i,0.  Apical  dehis- 
cence in  capsule 
of  bouncing  Bet. 
Four  columns  of 
seeds  are  attached 
to  a  central  shaft. 


245.  Follicles  of 
swamp  m  i  ]  k- 
weed,  not  yet 
dehisced. 


un^^  I 


3^8.    Leeumeg  nf  perennial 
or  evtrlMtiUk  iwa. 


347.  Legumee  uf  Lima  beau, 


49,  Capsuies  of 
evening  prim- 
rose.   Locali- 


251.  Three-carpelled  fruit  of  horsechestniit. 
Two  locules  are  closing  by  abortion 
of  the  ovules. 


'2.')2.  253. 

St.  John's  vort.        Looulicidal  poi 

.septieidal.  of  day-lily. 


i.'iS.  Toad-flax 
capsule. 


Ha.sal    dehiscence    of 
campanula  capsule. 


259.  I  ^ 

Shepherd's  purse. 

Silicle. 


Wl.  Two-yalvca  pods  of  catalpOi 


258.  Large  2-valved 
pods  or  capsules  of 
tecoma  or  truiupot- 
oreeper. 


PERICAEPS 


151 


lidU.    lierries  of  the  siiowberry. 


a  follicle  (Fig.  244).  If  these  pistils  were  united,  a  single 
compound  pistil  would  be  formed.  Columbine,  peony,  nine- 
bark  also  have  folli- 
cles; milkweed,  also 
(Fig.  245). 

290.  A  1-loculed 
pericarp  which  de- 
hisces on  both  edges 
is  a  legume.  Peas 
and  beans  are  typi- 
cal examples  (Figs. 
246,  247):  in  fact, 
this  character  gives 
name  to  the  pea-fam- 
ily, —  Leguminosfe. 
Often  the  valves  of  the  legume  twist  forcibly  and  expel 
the  seeds,  throwing  them  some  distance.  The  word  pod 
is  sometimes  restricted  to  legumes,  but  it  is  better  to  use 
it  generically   (as  in  287)  for  all  dehiscent  pericarps. 

291.  A  compound  pod— dehiscing  pericarp  of  two  or 
more  carpels — is  a  capsule  (Figs.  248,  249).      There  are 

some  capsules  of  one  locule,  but 
they  may  have  been  compound 
when  young  (in  the  ovary  stage) 
and  the  partitions  may  have 
vanished.  Sometimes  one  or 
more  of  the  carpels  are  uniformly 
crowded  out  by  the  exclusive 
growth  of  other  carpels  (Fig. 
251) .  The  seeds  or  parts  which 
are  crowded  out  are  said  to  be 
aborted. 

292.  There  are  several  ways  in  which  capsules  dehisce  or 
open.  When  they  break  along  the  partitions  (or  septa), 
the  mode  is  known    as  septicidal  dehiscence ;   Fig.  252 


Eggplant  fruits.    Kxamples  of 
large  berries. 


152 


FRUITS 


Plum ;   example  of  a 
dnipe. 


shows  it.  In  septicidal  dehiscence  the  frnit  separates  into 
parts  representing  the  original  carpels.  These  carpels 
may  still  be  entire,  and  they  then 
dehisce  individually,  usually  along 
the  inner  edge  as  if  they  were  folli- 
cles. When  the  compartments  split 
in  the  middle,  between  the  partitions, 
the  mode  is"  loculicidal  dehiscence 
(Fig.  253).  In  some  cases  the  dehis- 
cence is  at  the  top,  when  it  is  said  to 
be  apical  (although  several  modes  of 
dehiscence  are  here  included).  When 
the  whole  top  comes  off,  as  in  purslane  and  garden  portu- 
laca  (Fig.  254)  the  pod  is  known  as  a  pyxis.  In  some  cases 
apical  dehiscence  is  by  means  of  a  hole  or  clefts  (Fig. 
255).  In  pinks  and  their  allies  the  dehiscence  does  not 
extend  much  below  the  apex  (Fig.  250).  Dehiscence  may 
be  basal  (Fig.  256).  Two-loculed  capsules  which  resem- 
ble legumes  in  external  appearance  are  those  of  catalpa 
and  trumpet -creeper  (Figs.  257,  258). 

293.  The  peculiar  capsule  of  the  mustard  family,  or 
Cruciferae,  is  known  as  a  silique  when  it  is  distinctly 
longer  than  broad  (Fig.  240),  and  a  silicle  when  its 
breadth  nearly  equals  or  exceeds  its  length  (Fig.  259). 
A  cruciferous  capsule  is  2-carpelled,  with  a  thin  par- 
tition, each  locule  containing  seeds  in  two  rows.  The 
two  valves  detach  from  below 
upwards.  Cabbage,  turnip,  mus- 
tard, cress,  radish,  shepherd's 
purse,  sweet  alyssum,  wallflower, 
honesty,  are  examples, 

294.  The  pericarp  may  be 
263.  Aggregate  fruits  of  raspberry,  fleshy  and  indeJiiscent.  A  pulpy 
pericarp  with  several  or  many  seeds  is  a  berry  (Fig.  260). 
To  the  horticulturist  a J)erry  is  a  small,  soft,  edible  fruit, 


PEKICAKPS 


153 


J6i.   Strawberries.    I'he  edible  part  is  ton 


without  particular  reference  to  its  structure.     The  botani- 
cal and  horticultural  conceptions  of  a  berry  are,  therefore, 

unlike.     In  the  botanical 
\.  /\^^tiGam^^L.  sense,    gooseberries,    cur- 

rants, grapes,  tomatoes, 
potato  -  balls  and  even 
eggplant  fruits  (Fig.  261) 
are  berries;  strawberries, 
raspberries,  blackberries 
are  not. 

295.  A  fleshy  pericarp 
containing  one  relatively 
large  seed  or  stone  is  a 
drupe.  Examples  are  plum  (Fig.  262),  peach,  cherry, 
apricot,  olive.  The  walls  of  the  pit  in  the  plum,  peach, 
and  cherry  are  formed  from  the  inner  coats  of  the  ovary, 
and  the  flesh  from  the  outer  coats.  Drupes  are  also 
known  as  stone  fruits. 

296.  Fruits  whicli  ai-e  formed  by  the  subsequent  union 
of  separate  pistils  are  aggregate  fruits.  The  carpels  in 
aggregate  fruits  are  usually  more  or  less  fleshy.  In  the 
raspberry  and  blackberry  flower,  the  pistils  are  essentially 
distinct,  but  as  the  pistils  ripen  they  cohere  and  form 
one  body.  Fig.  263.  Each  of  the  carpels  or 
pistils  in  the  raspberry  and  blackberry  is  a 
little  drupe,  or  drupelet.  In  the  raspberry  the 
entire  fruit  separates  from  the  torus,  leaving 
the  torus  on  the  plant.  In  the 
blackberry  and  dewberry  the  fruit 
adheres  to  the  torus,  and  the  two 
are  removed  together  when  the 
fruit  is  picked.  ^^^---' 

297.  ACCESSORY  FRUITS.— When    ^es.  Hip  of  rose. 

the  pericarp  and  some  other  part  grow  together,  the  fruit 
is  said  to  be  accessory  or  reinforced  (2^6).    An  example 


266.  Diagram  of 
a  pear.  The 
reeeptacle  is 
a,  and  the 
pericarp  b. 


267.  Apple  flowers. 


268.  Young  »ppl»  fruiti. 


ACCESSORY     FRUITS 


155 


269.    Pepo  of  squash. 


is  the  strawberry  (Fig.  264).  The  edible  part  is  a  greatly 
enlarged  torus,  and  the  pericarps  are  akenes  imbedded 
ill  it.     These  akenes  are  commonly  called  seeds. 

298.  Various  kinds  of  reinforced  fruits  have  received 
special  names.  One  of  these  is 
the  hip,  characteristic  of  roses, 
Fig.  2C5.  In  this  case,  the  torus 
is  deep  and  hollow,  like  an  urn, 
and  the  separate  akenes  are  borne 
inside  it.  The  mouth  of  the  re- 
ceptacle may  close,  and  the  walls 
sometimes  become  flesh}^  :  the 
fruit  may  then  be  mistaken  for 
a  berry.     The  fruit  of  the  pear, 

apple,  and  quince  is  known  as  a  pome.  In  this  case  the 
five  united  carpels  are  completely  buried  in  the  hollow 
torus,  and  the  torus  makes  most  of  the  edible  part  of  the 
ripe  fruit,  while  the  pistils  are  represented  by  the  core 
(Fig.  266).  Fig.  267  shows  the  apple  in  bloom;  Fig.  268 
shows  young  fruits,  only  one  having  formed  in  each  clus- 
ter. In  the  lower  lefthand  flower  of  Fig.  267,  note  that  the 
sepals  do  not  fall.  Observe  the  sepals  on  the  top  of  the 
torus  (apex  of  the  fruit)  in  Fig.  268.  In  the  plum  flower 
(Fig.  194),  note  that  the  pistil  sits  free  in  the  hollow 
torus:  imagine  the  pistil  and  torus  grown  together,  and 
something  like  a  pome  might  result.  The  fruit  of 
pumpkin,  squash  (Fig.  269),  melon  and  cucumber 
is  a  pepo.  The  outer  wall  is  torus,  but  the  sepals 
do  not  persist,  and  the  fruit  is  normally  3-loculed 
(although  the  partitions  may  disappear  as  the  fruit 

.  .  270.  Winged 

ripens).  seed  of 

299.  GYMNOSPERMOUS  FRUITS.  —  In  pines,  sp^cl^^ 
spruces,  and  their  kin,  there  is  no  fruit  in  the  sense  in 
which  the  word  is  used  in  the  preceding  pages,  because 
•there  is  no  ovary.     The  ovules  are  naked  or  uncovered,  in 


156 


FRUITS 


the  axils  of  the  scales  of  the  young  cone,  and  they  have 
neither  style  nor  stigma.  The  pollen  falls  directly  on  the 
month  of  the  ovule.  The  ovule  ripens  into  a  seed  (Fig 
270)  which  is  usually  winged.  Because  the 
ovule  is  not  borne  in  a  sac  or  ovary,  these 
plants  are  called  gymnosperms 
(Greek  for  "naked  seeds"). 
All  the  true  cone-bearing  plants 
'/C-fVc^  "•  are  of  this  class;  also  certain 
","  -'''i.  other  plants  as  red  cedar,  juni- 
-'!-'  ^;i^  per,  yew.  The  plants  are  monoe- 
-*"":  cious  or  sometimes  dioecious. 
\^  rs^^  The  staminate  flowers  are  mere 
;  v^-"  naked  stamens  borne  beneath 
1^  scales,  in   small  yellow   catkins 

soon  fall.  The  pistillate 
are  naked  ovules  beneath 
on  cones  which  persist 
271,  272). 


71.  Pistillate  cone 
of  Norway  spruce. 
This  tree  is  one  of 
the  commonest  of 
planted  ever- 
greens. 


scales, 

which 

flowers 

scales 

(Figs. 


Pistillate 


cone  of  white 
pine. 


Review. — What  is  a  fruit,  as  understood  by  the  botanist  ?  What 
is  a  loeule  ?  What  are  simple,  compound,  and  accessory  or  reinforced 
fruits  ?  Define  pericarp.  Pod.  What  are  dehiscent  and  indehiscent 
fruits?  What  is  a  samara  or  key-truit  ?  Define  akene.  Follicle. 
Legume.  Capsule.  Explain  septicidal  and  loculieidal  dehiscence. 
Apical  dehiscence.  Basal  deniscenee.  What  is  a  pyxis?  Silique  ? 
Silicle  ?  Berry?  Drupe?  Drupelet?  Explain  an  aggregate  fruit. 
Explain  the  fruit  of  strawberry,  rose,  apple,  squash.  What  is  the 
fruit  of  pines  and  spruces? 

Note. — Fully  mature  fruits  are  best  for  study,  particularly  if  it  is 
desired  to  see  dehiscence.  For  comparison,  pistils  and  partially 
grown  fruits  should  be  had  at  the  same  time.  If  the  fruits  are  not 
ripe  enough  to  dehisce,  they  may  be  placed  in  the  sun  to  dry.  In  the 
school  it  is  well  to  have  a  collection  of  fruits  for  study.  The  speci- 
mens may  be  kept  in  glass  jars. 

The  following  diagram  will  aid  the  pupil  to  remember  some  of 
the  fruits  to  which  particular  names  have  been  given.  He  must  be 
warned,  however,  that  the  diagrnin  does  not  express  the  order  of  evo- 
ViUon  of  the  various  kinds.     He  should  nlso  remember  that  there  are 


REVIEW    ON    FRUITS 


157 


many  common  fruits  which  answer  to  no  definition,  and  these  slioiild 
be  studied  and  compared  with  the  forms  which  have  received  definite 
names. 


I>ry  pericarps .  . 


Pericarps  - 


Simple 


Compound 
(capsufe) 


r  berry 
Flesluj  pericarps \  drupe 

[  drnpelet 
-^fjfn'eiia te  pericarj)s 


akene  (indehiscent) 
follicle  (dehiscent) 
legume  (dehiscent) 

septicidal  dehiscence 
loeulicidal  dehiscence 
apical  deliiscencc. 

[Pyxis 


ArcEssoRY  Fruits 


r  strawberry 
J  hip 
I  Dome 


Gymnospermous  or  Cone  Fruits 


Autumn  fruits. 


CHAPTER   XXII 


DISPERSAL  OF  SEEDS 


300.  It  is  to  the  plant's  advantage  to  have  its  seeds 
distributed  as  widely  as  possible.     It  has  a  better  chance 
of  surviving  in  the  struggle  for  exis- 
tence.    It  gets  away  from  competition. 
Many    seeds    and    fruits     are     of    such 
character    as    to    increase    ( 
their  chances  of  wide  dis-     »\ 
persal.       The     commonest      Vi 
means      of      dissemination       l|  \  , 

may  be  classed  under  four         w  A 

Explosive  fruits  of  l^eads  :     explosive    fruits  ;  /| 

pod\'s%hownaT?.''Thf   transportation     Inj     wind;  /f 

6\'^ThTsr™ltx'?e°of\he   transportation     Inj    hirds ;  \J 

pod  is  seen  at  a.  \)UTS  *^V 

801.    EXPLOSIVE  FRUITS.—  Some     pods  >k 

open  with   explosive  force  and  scatter  the  ^^s 

seeds.  Even  beans  and  everlasting  peas  (Fig.  %, 

246)  do  this.   More  marked  ^ 

examples    are    the    locust,  ^/^/ 

witch  hazel ,  garden  balsam ,          AM^ 
wild  jewel  weed  or  impa-      /^/f 
tiens,  violet,  and  the  oxalis  JF 
(Fig.  273).     The  oxalis  is  274.  winsed seeds 

1  •  of  catalpa. 

common  in  several  species 
in    the   wild   and    in   cultivation.     One 
of    them     is    known     as    wood -sorrel. 
Fig.    273    shows    the    common    yellow 
oxalis.     The    pod    opens    loculicidally 
(158) 


Wind-blown  fruits 
of  dandelion. 


WIND  -  TRAVELERS 


159 


The  elastic  tissue  suddenly  contracts  when  dehiscence 
takes  place,  and  the  seeds  are  thrown  violently.  The 
squirting  cucumber  is  easily  grown  in  a  garden  (procure 
seeds  of  seedsmen),  and  the  fruits  discharge  the  seeds 
with  great  force,  thj-owing  them  many  feet. 


276.   Thistledo 


liifjh  in  tlie  air. 


302.  WIND-TRAVELERS.— Wind-transported  seeds  are 
of  two  general  kinds;  —  those  which  are  provided  with 
wings,  as  the  flat  seeds  of  catalpa  (Fig,  274)  and  cone- 
bearing   trees  (Fig.  270)  and    the   samaras  of   ash,  elm, 


160 


DISPERSAL     OF     SEEDS 


277.   Tlie  expanding  balloons  of  the  milkweed. 

tulip-tree,  ailanthus,  and  maple;  those  which  have  feathery 
buoys  or  parachutes  to  enable  them  to  float  in  the  air. 
Of  the  latter  kind  are  the  fruits  of  many  composites,  in 
which  the  pappus  is  copious  and  soft.     Dandelion  (Fig. 


DISPERSAL     BY     BIRDS 


161 


275)  and  thistle  (Fig.  27G)  are  examples.  The  silk  of 
the  milkweed  (Fig.  277)  has  a  similar  office,  and  also  the 
wool  of  the  cat-tail  (Fig.  278).  Recall  the  cottony  seeds 
of  the  willow  and  poplar. 

303.  DISPERSAL  BY  BIRDS.—  Seeds  of  berries  and  of 
other  small  fleshy  fruits  are  carried  far  and  wide  by- 
birds.  The  pulp  is  digested,  but  the  seeds  are  not 
injured.     Note  how  the  cherries,  raspberries,  blackberries, 


and  Juueberries  spring  up  in  the  fence- 
rows,  where  the  birds  rest.  Some  ber- 
ries and  drupes  persist  far  into  winter,  when  they  sup- 
ply food  to  cedar  birds,  robins,  and  the  winter  birds.  Fig. 
279.  Red  cedar  is  distributed  by  birds.  Many  of  these 
pulpy  fruits  are  agreeable  as  human  food,  and  some  of 
them  have  been  greatly  enlarged  or  "improved"  by  the 
arts  of  the  cultivator.  Consult  paragraph  379  for  the 
process  by  which  such  result  may  have  been  attained 

304.  BURS.— Many  seeds  and  fruits  bear  spines,  hooks, 
and  hairs  which  adhere  tc  the  coats  of  animals  and  to 


162 


DISPERSAL    OF     SEEDS 


clothing.  The  burdock  has  an 
involucre  with  hooked  scales 
containing  the  fruits  inside 
Fig.  280.  The  clotbur  is  also 
an  involucre.  Both  are  compos 
itous  plants,  allied  to  thistles 
but  the  whole  head,  rather  than 
the  separate  fruits,  is  trans 
ported.  In  some  compositous 
fruits  the  pappus  takes  the  form 
of  hooks  and  spines,  as  in  the 
"  Spanish  bayonets  "  and  "  pitch- 
forks." Fruits  of  various  kinds 
are  known  as  "stick  tights,"  as 
of  the  agrimony  and  hound's 
tongue.  Those  who  walk  in 
the  woods  in  late  summer  and 
fall  are  aware  that  plants  have 
means  of  disseminating  them- 
selves. Fig.  281.  If  it  is  im- 
possible   to    identify    the    burs 

which  one  finds  on  clothing,  the  seeds  may  be  planted  and 

specimens    of     the     plant    may 

then  be  grown. 

Review.  —  "What  advantage  is  it 
to  the  plant  to  have  its  seeds 
widely  dispersed  ?  What  are  the 
leading  ways  in  which  fruits  and 
seeds  are  dispersed?  Name  some  ex- 
plosive fruits.  Describe  wind-travel- 
ers. "What  seeds  are  carried  by  birds  t 
Describe  some  bur  with  which  you 
are  familiar. 

Note. — This   lesson   will   suggest 
other  ways  in  which  seeds  are  trans-    ■"''''WJ^(«raWwl?Bl^^ 
ported.     Nuts  are  buried  by  squirrels      280.  The  cow  is  carrying  burdocks 


,iiiil:-''"''l'" 

"' '  " ''"'     ' ' '                    ;l;. 

1 

\ 

/  , 

/   [ 

\ 

:    ii 

m 

: 

,,, 

\ 

.           \  Ub.          I 

270.  Drupes  of  the  blaek  haw,  loved 
of  robins  in  winter. 


fiEVlEW    ON    SEED    DISPERSAL 


163 


for  food,  but  if   they  are  not  eaten  they  may  grow.      The  seeds  of 
nnnv  yilants  aie  blown  on  the  snow.     The  old  stalks  of  weeds,  stand- 
ing through  the  winter,  may  serve  to  disseminate  the 
plant.     Seeds  are  carried  by  water  down  the  streams 
and  along  shores.     About  woollen  mills  strange  plants 
often    spring   up   from    seed  brought   in   the  fleeces. 
Sometimes  the  entire  plant  is  rolled  for  miles  before 
the  winds.     Such  plants  are  "tumble-weeds."    Exam- 
are    Eussian    thistle    (Fig.   99),    hair-grass    or 
tumble-grass  (Panieum  capillare),  cyclone  plant  (Cy- 
clolomaplatyphyllum),  and  white  amai'anth 
(Amaranthus    albus).      About    seaports 
strange  plants  are  often  found,  having  been 
JM     sti.  ilui^  I  luk-.  introduced  in  the  earth  that  is  used  in  sliips 

for  ballast.   These  plants  are  usuallv  known  as  "ballast  plants."     Most 
of  them  do  not  persist  long. 


A  ziiK'  lined  box  may  be  fitted  to  the  school-room  window  and  used 
us  a  receptacle  for  plants.  A  faucet  under  one  corner  will  drain  off  the 
accmnnlated  water.  Geranium,  coleus,  grevillea,  some  begonias,  and 
other  plants  may  be  grown  in  the  conditions  which  are  present  in  most 
schoolrooms.    If  the  plants  become  sick,  take  them  to  the  florist's 


CHAPTER   XXIIl 
GERMINATION 

305.  THE  SEED.— We  have  found  (259)  that  by  the  pro- 
cess of  fertilization  a  seed  is  formed.  The  seed  contains  a 
miniature  plant  or  embryo.  The  embryo  usually  has  three 
parts  which  have  received  names:  the  little  steralet  or 
caulicle;  the  seed-leaf  or  cotyledon  (usually  1  or  2) ;  tlie 
bud  or  plumule  lying  between  or  above  the  cotyledons. 
These  parts  are  well  seen  in  the  common  bean  (Fig.  282), 

particularly  when  the  seed  has  been  soaked 
for  a  few  hours.  One  of  the  large  cotyledons 
— comprising  half  of  the  bean — is  shown  at  r. 
The  caulicle  is  at  c.  The  plumule  is  at  a. 
bean*^r,cotyie^  The  cotyledons  are  attached  to  the  caulicle 
a^'piuinuye'^  ^  at  /:  tMs  poitit  IS  the  first  node,  and  the 
hrstno  e.  plumule  IS  ttt  the  second  node. 

306.  Every  seed  is  provided  with  food,  to  support  the 
germinating  plant.  Commonly  this  food  is  starch.  Tlie 
food  may  be  stored  in  the  cotyledons,  as  in  bean,  pea, 
squash;  or  outside  the  cotyledons,  as  in  castor  bean,  pine, 
Indian  corn.  When  the  food  is  around  the  embryo,  it  is 
usually  called  endosperm. 

307.  The  embryo  and  endosperm  are  inclosed  within  a 
covering  made  of  two  or  more  la3'ers  and  known  as  the 
seed-coats.  Over  the  point  of  the  caulicle  is  a  minute  hole 
or  a  thin  place  in  the  coats  known  as  the  micropyle. 
This  is  the  point  at  which  the  pollen -tube  entered  the 
forming  ovule  and  through  which  the  caulicle  breaks  in 
germination.  The  micropyle  is  shown  at  m  in  Fig.  283. 
The  scar  where  the  seed  broke  from  its  funiculus  or  stalk 

(164) 


THE    SEED  165 

is  the  hilum.  It  occupies  a  third  of  the  length  of  the  bean 
in  Fig.  283.  The  hilum  and  micropyle  are  always  present 
in  seeds,  but  they  are  not  always  close  together.  In  many 
cases  it  is  difficult  to  identify  the  micropyle  in  the  dormant 
seed,  but  its  location  is  at  once  shown  by 
the  protruding  caulicle  as  germination  be- 
gins. Opposite  the  micropyle  in  the  beau 
(at  the  other  end  of  the  hilum)  is  an  eleva-  Extemaf parts  of 
tion  known  as  the  raphe.      This  is  formed  •^®*"- 

by  a  union  of  the  funiculus  or  seed -stalk  with  the  seed- 
coats  and  through  it  food  was  transferred  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  seed,  but  it  is  now  functionless. 

308.  Seeds  differ  wonderfully  in  size,  shape,  color,  and 
other  characteristics.  They  also  vary  in  longevity.  These 
characteristics  are  peculiar  to  the  species  or  kind.  Some 
seeds  maintain  life  only  a  few  weeks  or  even  days,  whereas 
others  will  "keep"  for  ten  or  twenty  years.  In  special 
cases,  seeds  have  retained  vitality  longer  than  this  limit, 
but  the  stories  that  live  seeds,  several  thousand  years  old, 
have  been  taken  from  mummies  are  unfounded. 

309.  GERMINATION.— The  embryo  is  not  dead:  it  is 
only  dormant.  WJicn  supplied  until  moisture,  warmth,  and 
oxygen  (air),  it  awakes  and  groivs:  this  growth  is  germina- 
tion. The  embryo  lives  for  a  time  on  the  stored  food, 
but  gradually  the  plantlet  secures  a  foothold  in  the  soil 
and  gathers  food  for  itself.  When  the  plantlet  is  finally 
able  to  shift  for  itself,  germination  is  complete. 

310.  The  germinating  seed  first  absorbs  wafer,  and 
swells.  The  starchy  matters  gradually  become  soluble.  The 
seed-coats  are  ruptured,  the  caulicle  and  plumule  emerge. 
During  this  process  the  seed  respires  freely,  throwing  off 
carbon  dioxid  (CO2).  Fill  a  tin  box  or  large -necked  bottle 
with  dry  beans  or  peas,  then  add  water;  note  how  much 
they  swell.  Secure  two  fruit- jars.  Fill  one  of  them  a 
third   full   of   beans   and   keep   them  moist.     Allow   the 


166 


GEEMINATION 


^^^i^ 


other  to  remain  empty.  In  a  day  or  two  insert  a  lighted 
splinter  or  taper  into  each.  In  the  empty  jar  the  taper 
burns:  it  contains  oxygen. 
In  the  seed  jar  the  taper 
goes  out:  the  air  has  been 
replaced  by  carbon  dioxid. 
Usually  there  is  a  percepti- 
ble rise  in  temperature  in  a 
mass  of  germinating  seeds. 

311.  The    caulicle  usually 
elongates,  and  from  its  lower 

284.   The  youug  roots  are  not  able  to  gain    end    rOOtS    are     emitted.        The 

a  foothold.  elongating  caulicle   is  known 

as  the  h3T)ocotyl  ("below  the  cotyledons").  That  is,  the 
hypocotyl  is  that  part  of  the  stem  of  the  plantlet  lying 
between  the  roots  and  the  coty- 
ledon. The  general  direction  oj 
the  young  hypocotyl  or  emerging 
caulicle  is  downwards.  As  soon 
as  roots  form  it  becomes  fixed, 
and  its  subsequent  growth  tends 
to  raise  the  cotyledons  above  the 
ground,  as  in  the  bean.  When 
cotyledons  rise  into  the  air,  germ- 
ination is  said  to  be  epigeal 
("above  the  earth").  Bean  and 
pumpkin    are    examples.      When        286.  Gemiiiuitiouof  beau. 

the  hypocotyl  does  not  elongate  greatly 
and  the  cotyledons  remain  under 
ground,  the  germination  is  hypogeal 
(  "  beneath  the  earth " ) .  Pea  and 
runner  bean  are  examples. 
When  the  germinating  seed  lies  on  a 
liard  surface,  as  on  closely  compacted  soil,  the  hypo- 
cot  vl  and  rootlets  mav  not  be  able  to  seeiire  a  foothol<l 


285.     Cotyledons   of   g 
rating  bp;\n  spread  apart    gCQ^lgt 


to  show  elongating  cauli- 
cle and  plumule. 


GERMINATION     OF     BEAN 


167 


Fig.  284.     Try  this 


be- 


288.   Germination  of  eas 
tor  bean.      Endospern 


and  they  assume   grotesque  forms, 
with  peas  and  beans. 

312.    The    first    internode    above    the    cotyledons 
tweeu    the    cotyledons    and  the  plumule  —  is 
the  epicotyl.    It  elevates  the  plumule  into  the 
air,  and    tlie   pi immle- leaves   expand  into  the  ^^j  sprouting  of 
first    true     leaves     of    the  ^  castor  bean. 
plant.     These  first  true  leaves,  however, 
may  be  very  unlike  the  later  leaves. 

313.  GERMINATION  OF  BEAN.  —  The 
common  bean,  as  we  have  seen  (Fig. 
282)  has  cotyledons  which  occupy  all 
the  space  inside  the  seed -coats.  When 
the  hypocotyl  or  elongating  caulicle 
emerges,  the  plumule-leaves  have  begun 
to  enlarge  and  to 
unfold  (Fig.  285). 

The  hypocotyl  elongates  rapidly.    One 

end  of  it  is  held  by  the  roots.     The 

other  is  held  by  the  seed -coats  in  the 

soil.     It,  therefore,  takes  the  form  of 

a  loop,  and  its    central  part  "comes 

up"    first  (a,   Fig.   286).      Presently 

it    draws   the   cotyledons    out  of   the 

seed-coats,   and    then    it    straightens 

and  the  cotyledons   expand.      These 

cotyledons  or  "halves  of   the  beau," 

persist  for  some  time,  (&,  Fig.  286). 
They  often  become  green  and  probably 
perform  some  function  of  foliage.  Be- 
(tause  of  its  large  size,  Lima  bean  shows 
all   these  parts  well. 

314.  GERMINATION  OF  CASTOR  BEAN. 
—  In  the  castor  beau  the  hilum  and 
niicropyle  are  at  the  smaller  end  (Fig. 


290.   Germination  complete 
in  castor  bean 


istor  l,ean.  Endo- 
sperm at  o,  o  ;  cotyle- 
<li>n»  at  b. 


168 


GERMINATION 


291.  Sprout- 
ing Indian 
corn.  Hi- 
lum  at  h  ; 
mieropyle 
at  d. 


!I2.  Kernel  of 
Indian  corn. 
Caulicle  at 
b;  cotyledon 
a  ;    plumule 


287).  The  beau  "comes  up"  with  a  loop,  which  indicates 
that  the  hypocotj-l  greatly  elongates.  On  examining  a 
germinating  seed,  however,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  cotyledons  are  contained  inside  a  fleshy 
body  or  sac  («,  Fig.  288).  This  sac  is  the  en- 
dosperm. To  its  inner  surface  the 
thin,  veiny  cotyledons  are  ver}"  closely 
appressed,  absorbing  its  substance 
(Fig.  289).  The  cotyledons  increase 
in  size  as  they  reach  the  air  (Fig, 
290),  and  become  functional  leaves. 

315.  GERMINATION  OF 
INDIAN  CORN.— Soak  kernels 
of  corn.  Note  that  the  mieropyle  and  hilum 
are  at  the  smaller  end  (Fig.  291). 
Make  a  longitudinal  section  through 
the  narrow  diameter  ;  Fig.  292  shows 
it.  The  single  cotyledon  is  at  a,  the 
caulicle  at  b,  the  plumule  at  p.  The 
cotyledon  remains  in  the  seed.  The  food  is  stored 
both  in  the  cotyledon  and  as  endosperm,  chiefly  the  lat- 
ter. The  emerging  shoot  is  the  plumule,  with  a  sheath- 
ing leaf  ip,  Fig.  293).  The  root  is  emitted  from 
the  tip  of  the  caulicle,  c.  The  caulicle  is  held  in  a 
sheath  (formed  mostly  from  the  seed -coats),  and 
some  of  the  roots  escape  through  the 

^_        upper  end   of   this   sheath   {m,   Fig. 

tp^^V^^^'"      293).     The    epicotyl   elongates,    par- 
'^f(^w^  ticularly  if  the  seed  is 

planted  deep  or  if  it 
is  kept  for  some  time 
confined.  In  Fig.  294 
the  epicotyl  has  elon- 
gated from  n  to  p.  The  true  plumule -leaf  is  at  o,  but 
other  leaves  grow  from  its  sheath.     In  Fig.  295  the  roots 


293.    Indian  corn. 
Caulicle   at   c  :     roots 
emerging  at  m;  plumule  at  p. 


204.    Indian  corn.     o.  plumule; 
n  to  p,  epicotyl. 


KEVIEW     ON     GERMINATION 


169 


are  seen  emerging  from  the  two  ends  of  the  eaulicle- 
sheath,  c,  w;  the  epicotyl  has  grown  to  2^;  the  first 
plumnle-leaf  is  at  0. 

Eeview. — What  does  a  seed  contain?  What  do  you  understand 
by  the  embryo?  What  are  its  parts?  Where  is  the  food  in  the  seed? 
What  are  the  seed-coats?  What  is 
the  micropyle?  Hilum?  How  may 
the  position  of  the  micropyle  be 
determined?  How  do  seeds  differ? 
With  what  are  these  differences  as- 
sociated? What  is  germination? 
Under  what  conditions  does  a  seed 
germinate?  When  is  germination 
complete?  What  is  the  first  phenom- 
enon of  germination?  Explain  the 
relation  to  O  and  CO2.  Define  hypo - 
cotyl.  Epicotyl.  Hypogeal  and  epi- 
geal  germination.  What  becomes 
of  the  plumule?  Explain  germina- 
tion in  a  seed  which  you  have 
studied. 

Note. — Few  subjects  connected 
with  the  study  of  plant-life  are  so 
useful  in  school -room  demonstra- 
tions as  germination.  The  pupil 
should  prepare  the  soil,  plant  the 
seeds,  water  them,  and  care  for  the 
plants.  Plant  in  pots  or  shallow 
boxes.  Cigar-boxes  are  excellent. 
The  depth  of  planting  should  be 
two  to  three  times  the  diameter  of 
the  seeds.  It  is  well  to  begin  the 
planting  of  seeds  at  least  ten  days 
in  advance  of  the  lesson,  and  to 
make  four  or  five  different  plantings 
at  intervals.  A  day  or  two  before  the  study  is  taken  up,  put  seeds  to 
soak  in  moss  or  cloth.  The  pupil  then  has  a  series  from  swollen 
seeds  to  complete  germination,  and  all  the  steps  can  be  made  out. 
Dry  seeds  should  be  had  for  comparison. 

Good  seeds  for  study  are   those  detailed  in  the  lesson, — bean, 
Cftstor  bean,  cor^.     Make  drawings  and  notes  of  all  the  events  in  the 


Germination  is  complete,  p,  top 
of  epicotyl  ;  o,  phimiile-leaf  ;  m, 
roots;  c,  lower  roots. 


.   Natural  planting  of  the  fruits  of  Norway  maple.  297.   The  beginning 


NOTE     ON     GERMINATION 


17] 


srermination.  Note  the  effects  of  unusual  conditions,  as  planting  too 
deep  and  too  shallow  and  different  sides  up.  For  hypogeal  germina- 
tion, use  the  garden  pua,  scarlet  runner  or  Dutch  case-knife  bean, 
acorn,  horse-chestnut.  Squash  seeds  are  excellent  for  germination 
studies,  because  the  cotyledons  become  green  and  leafy  and  germina- 
tion is  rapid.  Its  germination,  as  also  that  of  the  scarlet  runner 
boan,  is  explained  in  "Lessons  with  Plants."  Onion  is  excellent, 
except  that  it  germinates  too  slowly.  In  order  to  study  the  root 
development  of  germinating  plantlets,  it  is  well  to  provide  a 
deeper  box  with  a  glass  side  against  which  the  seeds  are  planted. 

Observe  the  germination  of  any  seed  which  is  common  about  the 
premises.  Where  elms  and  maples  are  abundant,  the  germination  of 
tiieir  seeds  may  be  studied  in  lawns  and  along  fences.  Figs.  296  to 
303  suggest  observations  on  the  Norway  maple,  which  is  a  common 
ornamental  tree. 

When  studying  germination,  the  pupil  should  note  the  bifferences 
in  shape  between  cotyledons  and  plumule-leaves  and  between  plu- 
mule-leaves and  the  normal  leaves  of  cbe  plant.  Fig.  143.  Make 
drawings. 


Germinatiou  of  beans  and  peas. 


CHAPTER   XXIV 


PHENOGAMS   AND   CRYPTOGAMS 


316.  The  plants  thus  far  studied  produce  flowers;  and 
the  flowers  produce  seeds  by  means  of  which  the  plant 
is  propagated.  There  are  other  plants,  however,  which 
produce  no  seeds,  and  these  plants  are  more  numerous 
than  the  seed -bearing  plants.  These  plants  propagate  by 
means  of  spores,  which  are  generative  cells,  usually  simple, 
containing  no  emhryo.  These  spores  are  very  small,  and 
sometimes  are  not  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 

317.  Prominent  amongst  the  spore -propagated  plants 
are  ferns.  The  common  Christmas  fern  (so-called  be- 
cause it  remains  green  during  winter)  is  shown  in  Fig. 
304.  The  plant  has  no  trunk.  The  leaves  spring  di- 
rectly from   the  ground.     The  leaves  of  ferns  are  called 

fronds.      They  vary  in  shape,    as 

'V  %.    ftlh  other    leaves    do.     Compare    Fig. 

.  v^"^  «h-  ^  Jfflll  "'■^^  ^^^  ^^®  pictures  in  this  chap- 

•'v^^^^^^^^^m}.         ter.     Some  of  the  fronds  are  seen 

'  *■  to    be    narrower    at    the    top.      If 

these    are    examined  more   closely 

(Fig.  305)  it  will  be  seen  that  the 

leaflets     are    contracted    and     are 

densely     covered      beneath      with 

■^ciA  rv,  •  ♦^.o  f^      T^^   t.^    brown    bodies.      These  bodies  are 

304.  Christmas  fern.— Dryoptens 
acrostichoides ;    known  also  as    COllcctioUS    of    Sporangia   Or    SpOrC^ 

^''"^'^'^-  cases. 

318.  The  sporangia  are  collected  into  little  groups, 
known  as  sori  (singular,  sorus)  or  fruit -dots.  Each 
sorus  is  covered  with  a  thin  scale  or  shield,  known  as  an 

(172) 


STRUCTUKE    OF    FERNS 


173 


indusium.  This  indusium  separates  from  the  frond  at 
its  edges,  and  the  sporangia  are  exposed.  Not  all  ferns 
have  indusia.  The  polypode  (Figs. 
306,  307)  does  not:  the  sori  are 
naked.  In  the  brake  (Fig.  308)  and 
maiden -hair  (Fig.  309)  the  edge  of 
the  frond  turns  over  and  forms  an 
indusium.  In  some  ferns  (Fig.  310) 
an  entire  frond  becomes  contracted 
to  cover  the  sporangia.  In  other 
cases  the  indusium  is  a  sac -like  cov- 
ering, which  splits  (Fig.  311). 

319.  The    sporangium    or   spore - 
case   of    a   fern    is    a    more    or    less 

IT,  IT  J  1,  .,1  305.    Fruiting  frond  of  Christ- 

globular      body     and      usually     with     a      „,as  fern.      Sori  at  a.     One 

stalk  (Fig.  307).  If  contains  fJte  somswitii  its  indusium,  at  t. 
spores.  When  ripe  it  bursts  and  the  spores  are  set 
free.  Lay  a  mature  fruiting  frond  of  any  fern  on  white 
paper,  top  side  up,  and  allow  it  to  remain  in  a  dry,  warm 
place.     The  spores  will  discharge  on  the  paper. 

320.  In   a   moist,   warm    place    the   spores    germmate. 
They    produce    a    small,  flat,   thin,   green,  more    or    less 

heart-shaped  membrane  (Fig. 

312) .    This  is  the  prothallus. 

Sometimes    the    prothallus  is 

an  inch  or  more 

/    across,  but  oft- 

1     ener   it    is  less 

than  one-fourth 

this  size.     It  is 

commonly    un- 

307.  Sori  and  sporan-     knOWU        CXCCpt 
gium of  polypode.        ^q         botauists. 

Prothalli  may  often  be  found  in  greenhouses  where  ferns 
are  grown.     Look  on  the  moist  stone  or  brick  walls,  or 


306.   Common  polypode  fern.- 
Polypodium  vulgare. 


174  PHENOGAMS     AND     CRYPTOGAMS 

on  the  firm  soil  of  undisturbed  pots  and  beds.    Or  spores 
may  be  sown  in  a  damp,  warm  place. 

321.  On  the  under  side  of  the  prothallus  two  kinds 
of    organs  are   borne.     These  are    the  archegonium    and 

the  antheridium.  These  organs  are  mi- 
nute specialized  parts  of  the  prothallus. 
Their  positions  on  a  particular  prothal- 
lus are  shown  at  a  and  h  in   Fig.  312, 

3u8.    The   brake   fniits   ,  .  r.  i 

underneath  the  revo-  but  lu  somc  lems  tlicy  are  OH  Separate 
lute  edges  of  the  leaf.  prothalU  (plant  dioBcious) .  The  sperm- 
cells  escape  from  the  antheridium  and  in  the  water  which 
collects  on  the  prothallus  are  carried  to  the  archegonium, 
tvhere  fertilization  taJces  place.  From  a  fertilized  arche- 
gonium a  plant  grows,  and  this  plant  becomes  the  "fern." 
In  most  cases  the  prothallus  dies  soon  after  the  fern 
plant  begins  to  grow. 

322.  The  fern  plant,  arising  from  the  fertilized  egg  in 
the  archegonium,  becomes  a  perennial  plant,  each  year 
producing  spores  from  its  fronds,  as  we  have  seen;  but 
these  spores — which  are  merely  detached  special  kinds  of 
cells — produce  the  prothallic  phase  of  the  fern  plant,  from 
which  new  individuals 
arise.  A  fern  is  fer- 
tilized but  once  in  its 
lifetime.  This  alterna- 
tion of  phases  is  called 
the  alternation  of  gen- 
erations. The  first  oi- 
fertilized  plant  is  the 
gametophyte ;  the  sec- 
ond     or      non  -  fertilized       '^''^'   ^®''^^®'^  margins  of  a  maidenhair  frond. 

plant  is  the  sporophyte  {phyton  is  Greek  for  "plant"). 

323.  The  alternation  of  generations  runs  all  through 
the  vegetable  kingdom,  although  there  are  some  groups 
of  plants  in  which  it  is  very  obscure  or  apparently  want- 


WHAT    A    FLOWER     IS 


175 


mg.  It  is  very  marked  in  ferns  and  mosses.  In  alga? 
(including  the  seaweeds)  the  gametophyte  makes  the 
"plant,"  as  the  non-botanist  knows 
it.  There  is  a  general  tendency,  In 
the  evolution  of  the  vegetable  lingdoni, 
for  the  gametophyte  to  lose  its  rela- 
tive importance  and  for  the  sporophyte 
to  hecome  larger  and  more  highly  de- 
veloped. In  the  seed -bearing  plants 
the  sporophyte  generation  is  the  only 
one  seen  by  the  non -botanist.  The 
gametophyte  stage  is  of  short  dura- 
tion   and  the   parts  are  small  :     it  is 

confined  to  the  time   SIO.  Fertile  and  sterile  froml? 
„    p      ..,.       ..  of  the  sensitive  fern. 

or  fertilization. 

324.  The  sporophyte  of  seed -plants, 
or  the  "plant"  as  we  know  it,  produces 
spores  —  one  kind  being  called  pollen- 
grains  and  the  other  kind  embryo-sacs. 
The  pollen -spores  are  borne  in  sporan- 
A  sac  like  indusium.  ^.-^^  ^ff\nQh.  are  United  into  what  are 
en  lied  anthers.  The  embryo -sac,  which  contains  the  egg- 
cell,  is  borne  in  a  sporangium  known  as  an  ovule.  A 
gametophytic  stage  is  present  in 
both  pollen  and  embryo -sac:  fer- 
tilization takes  place,  and  a  sporo- 
phyte arises.  Soon  this  sporo- 
phyte becomes  dormant,  and  is 
then  known  as  an  embryo.  The 
embryo  is  packed  away  within 
tight-fitting  coats,  and  the  entire 
body  is  the  seed.  When  the  con- 
ditions are  right  the  seed  grows, 
and  the  sporophyte  grows  into  herb,  bush,  or  tree.  The 
utility  of  the  alternation  of  generations  is  not  understood. 


(fllnp'^tm 


312.  Prothallus  of  a  fern.    Enlarged. 
Archegonia  at  a;  antheridia  at  6. 


176  PHENOGAMS     AND     CRYPTOGAMS 

325.  It  happens  that  the  spores  of  seed-beariug  plants 
are  borne  amongst  a  mass  of  specially  developed  leaves 
known  as  floivers :  therefore  these  plants  have  been  known 
as  the  flowering  plants.  Some  of  the  leaves  are  devel- 
oped as  envelopes  (calyx,  corolla),  and  others  as  spore- 
bearing  parts,  or  sporophylls  (stamens,  pistils).  But  the 
spores  of  the  lower  plants,  as  of  ferns  and  mosses,  may 
also  be  borne  in  specially  developed  foliage,  so  that  the 
line  of  demarcation  between  flowering  plants  and  flower- 
less  plants  is  not  so  definite  as  was  once  supposed.  The 
one  definite  distinction  between  these  two  classes  of  plants 
is  the  fact  that  one  class  produces  seeds  and  the  other 
does  not.  The  seed -plants  are  now  often  called  sperma- 
phytes,  but  there  is  no  single  coordinate  term  to  set  off 
those  which  do  not  bear  seeds.  It  is  quite  as  well,  for 
popular  purposes,  to  use  the  old  terms,  phenogams  for 
the  seed -bearing  plants  and  cryptogams  for  the  others. 
These  terms  have  been  objected  to  in  recent  years  be- 
cause their  etymology  does  not  express  literal  facts  {phe- 
nogam  refers  to  the  fact  that  the  flowers  are  showy,  and 
cryptogam  to  the  fact  that  the  parts  are  hidden),  but  the 
terms  represent  distinct  ideas  in  classification.  Nearly 
every  word  in  the  language  has  grown  away  from  its 
etymology.  The  cryptogams  include  three  great  series 
of  plants — the  Thallophytes  or  algee,  lichens  and  fungi, 
the  Bryophytes  or  moss -like  plants,  the  Pteridophytes  or 
fern -like  plants.  In  each  of  these  series  there  are  many 
families.     See  Chapter  XXV. 

Review. — What  is  a  spore?  Describe  the  appearance  of  some 
fern  plant  which  you  have  studied.  What  are  the  spores  and  spor- 
angia? What  is  a  sorus?  Indusium?  What  grows  from  the  spore? 
How  does  the  new  "fern"  plant  arise?  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase 
"alternation  of  generations"?  Define  gametophyte  and  sporophyte. 
Desci'ibe  the  alternation  in  flowering  plants.  Explain  the  flower  from 
this  point  of  view.  What  is  the  significance  of  the  word  sperma- 
phytet     Contrast  phenogam  and  cryptogam. 


NOTE     ON     CKYPTOGAMS 


177 


Note. — All  the  details  of  fertilization  and  of  the  development  of 
the  generations  are  omitted  from  this  book,  because  they  are  subjects 
for  specialists  and  demand  more  ti-ainiug  in  research  methods  than 
the  high-school  pupil  can  properly  give  to  plant  study.  Cryptogams 
are  perhaps  as  many  as  phenogams,  and  for  this  reason  it  has  been 
urged  thnt  they  are  most  p.roper  subjects  for  study  in  the  school. 
Thia  position  is  untenable,  however,  for  the  best  plant  subjects  for 
youth  are  those  which  mean  most  to  his  life.  It  is  said,  also,  that 
they  are  best  for  the  beginner  because  their  life-processes  are  rel- 
atively simple  in  many  eases;  but  the  initial  study  of  plants  should 
be  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  quickening  the  pupil's  perception 
of  common  and  familiar  problems  rather  than  for  the  purpose  of 
developing  a  technical  knowledge  of  a  given  science 


Tree  ferns  are  iiiluibitants  of  the  tropics. 
They   are  often   grown   in  choice  greenhouses. 


CHAPTER   XXV 


STUDIES  IN  CRYPTOGAMS 


The  special  advanced  pupil  who  has  acrinired  skill  in 
the  use  of  the  compound  microscope,  may  desire  to  make 
more  extended  excursions  into  the  cryptogaraous  orders. 
The  following  plants,  selected  as  examples  in  various 
groups,  will  serve  as  a  beginning. 


ALG^ 

The  algae  comprise  most  of  the  green  floating  "st-um"  which 
3overs  the  surface  of  ponds  and  other  quiet  waters.  The  masses  of 
plants  are  often  called  "frog  spittle,"  Others  are  attached  to  stones, 
pieces  of  wood,  and  other  objects  submerged  in  streams  and  lakes, 
and  many  are  found  on  moist  ground  and  on  dripping 
rocks.  Aside  from  these,  all  the  plants  commonly  known 
as  seaweeds  belong  to  this  category.  They  ai-e  iiiliab- 
itants  of  salt  water. 

The  simplest  forms  of  algas  consist  of  a  single 
spherical  cell,  which  multiplies  by  repeated  division  or 
fission.  Most  of  the  forms  found  in  fresh  water  are  fila- 
mentous, i.  e.,  the  plant-body  consists  of  long  threads, 
either  simple  or  branched.  Such  a  plant-body  is  termed 
a  thallus.  This  term  applies  to  the  vegetative  body  of 
all  plants  which  are  not  differentiated  into  stem  and 
leaves.  Such  plants  are  known  as  tliullophytes  (325).  All 
algae  contain  chlorophyll,  and  are  able  to  assimilate  car- 
bon dioxid  from  the  air.  This  distinguishes  them  from 
813.  Strand  of    the  fungi. 

spirogyra,  Sniroqiira. — One  of  the  most  common   forms  of  the 

snowing  ^        *''' 

the  ehloro-    green  algae  is  spirogyra  (Fig.  313).     This  plant  usually 

There"*^  a    forms  the    greater  part  of  the   floating  green   mass  on 
nueleusata.    ponds.     The  filamentous  character  of  the  thallus  can  be 
seen  with  the  naked  eye  or  with  a  hand-lens,  but  to  study  it  care- 
fully a  microscope  magnifying  two  hundred  diameters  or  more  should 

(178) 


A  LGiE 


179 


be  used.  Tlie  thread  is  divided  into  long  cells  by  cross-walls  wbieh, 
according  to  the  species,  are  either  straight  or  curiously  fokled  (Fig. 
314).  The  chlorophyll  is  arranged  in  beautiful  spiral  bands  near 
the  wall  of  each  cell.  From  the  character  of  these  bands  the  phint 
takes  its  name.  Each  cell  is  provided  with  a  nucleus 
and  other  protoplasm .  The  nucleus  is  suspended  near 
the  center  of  the  cell,  a.  Fig.  313,  by  delicate  strands 
of  protoplasm  radiating  toward  the  wall  and  terminat- 
ing at  certain  points  in  the  chlorophyll  band.  The 
remainder  of  the  protoplasm  forms  a  thin  layer  lining 
the  wall.  The  interior  of  the  cell  is  filled  with 
cell-sap.  The  protoplasm  and  nucleus  cannot  be 
easily  seen,  but  if  the  plant  is  stained  with  a  dilute 
alcoholic  solution  of  eosin  (146)  they  become  clear. 

Spirogyra  is  propagated  vegetatively  by  the  break- 
ing off  of  parts  of  the  threads,  which  continue  to  grow 
as  new  plants.  Resting- spores,  which  may  remain 
dormant  for  a  time,  are  formed  by  a  process  known  as 
cunjugation.  Two  threads  lying  side  by  side  send  out 
short  projections,  usually  from  all  the  celis  of  a  long 
series  (Fig.  314).  The  projections  or  processes  from 
opposite  cells  grow  toward  each  other,  meet  and  fuse, 
forming  a  connecting  tube  between  the  cells.  The 
protoplasm,  nucleus,  and  chlorophyll  band  of  one  cell 
now  pass  througli  this  tube,  and  unite  with  the  contents  of  the  other 
cell.  The  entire  mass  then  becomes  surrounded  by  a  thick  cellulose 
wall,  thus  completing  the  resting -spore,  or  zygospore  (Fig.  314,  s). 

Vancheria  is  another  alga  common  in  shallow  water  and  on  damp 
soil.  The  tliallus  is  much  branclied,  but  the  threads  are  not  divided 
by  cross-walls  as  in  spirogyra.  The  plants  are  attached  by  means  of 
colorless  root-like  organs  which  are  much  like  the  root-hairs  of  the 
higher  plants:  these  are  rhizoids.  The  chlorophyll  is  in  the  form  of 
grains  scattered  through  the  thread. 

Vaucheria  has  a  special  mode  of  vegetative  reproduction  by  means 
of  swimming  spores  or  swarm-spores.  These  are  formed  singly  in  a 
short,  enlarged  lateral  branch  known  as  the  sporangium.  When  the 
sporangium  bursts  the  entire  contents  escape,  forming  a  single  large 
swarm-spore,  which  swims  about  by  means  of  numerous  lashes  or  cilia 
on  its  surface.  The  swarm-spores  are  so  large  that  they  can  be  seen 
with  the  naked  eye.  After  swimming  about  for  some  time  they  coma 
to  rest  and  germinate,  producing  a  new  plnnt. 

The  formation    of    resting- spores  of  vaucheria  is    accomplished 


1.  Conjugation 
of  spirogyra. 
Ripe  zygospores 
on  the  left;  a, 
connecting 
tubes. 


180 


STUDIES     IN     CRYPTOGAMS 


thallus. 


by  means  of  special  organs,  oogonia  Fig.  315.  o,  and  antheridia  Fig. 
315,  a.  Both  of  these  are  specially  developed  branches  from  the 
The  antheridia  are  nearly  cylindrical,  and  curved  toward 
the  oogonia.  The  upper  part 
of  an  autheridium  is  cut  off 
by  a  cross-wall,  and  within 
it  numerous  ciliated  sperm- 
cells  are  formed.  These  escape 
by  the  ruptured  apex  of  the 
antheridium.  The  oogonia  are 
more  enlarged  than  the  an- 
theridia and  have  a  beak-like  pro,iection  turned  a  little  to  cne  side 
of  the  apex.  They  are  separated  from  the  thallus- 
thread  by  a  cross-wall,  and  contain  a  single  large 
green  cell,  the  egg-cell.  The  apex  of  the  oogonium 
is  dissolved,  and  through  the  opening  the  sperm-cells 
enter.  Fertilization  is  thus  accomplished.  After  ferti- 
lization the  egg-cell  becomes  invested  with  a  thick  wall 
and  is  thus  converted  into  a  resting- spore,  the  oospore  316. 

/  T7I-        0  1/.V  Kipe    oospore 

(Fig.  316),  of   vaufheriu. 


^15.  Thread  of  vauclieria  with  oogouia 
and  antheridia. 


FUNGI 

Some  forms  of  fungi  are  familiar  to  every  one.  Mushrooms  and 
toadstools,  with  their  varied  forms  and  colors,  are  common  in  fields, 
woods,  and  pastures.  In  every  household  the  common  moulds  are 
familiar  intruders,  appearing  on  old  bread,  vegetables,  and  even  within 
tightly  sealed  fruit  jars,  where  they  form  a  felt-like  layer  dusted  over 
with  blue,  yellow,  or  black  powder  (181).  The 
strange  occurrence  of  these  plants  long  mysti- 
fied people,  who  thought  they  were  produc- 
tions of  the  dead  matter  upon  whicii  they  grew, 
but  now  we  know  that  a  mould,  like  any  other 
plant,  cannot  originate  spontaneously;  it  must 
start  from  something  which  is  analogous  to  a 
seed.  The  "seed"  in  this  ease  is  n,  spore.  Tiie 
term  spore  is  applied  to  the  minute  reproduc- 
tive bodies  of  all  flowerless  plants.  A  spore  is 
a  very  simple  structure,  usually  of  only  one 
plant  cell,  whose  special  function  is  to  repro- 
duce the  plant.  A  spore  may  be  produced  by  a  vegetative  process 
(^ growing  out  from  the  ordinai-y  plant  tissues),  or  it  may  be  the  re- 
sult of  a  fertilization  process  (316). 


317.  JIucor  mucedo,  show 
ing  habit. 


FUNGI 


181 


318.  Spores  of  nmcor 
some  germinating. 


Mould. — One  of  these  moulds,  Mucor  mucedo,  which  is  very  com- 
mon on  all  decaying  fruits  and  vegetables,  is  shown  in  Fig.  317,  some- 
what magnified.  When  fruiting,  this  mould  appears  as  a  dense  mass 
of  long  white  hairs,  often  over  an  inch  high,  standing  erect  from  the 
fruit  or  vegetable  upon  which  it  is  growing. 

The  life  of  this  mueor  begins  with  a  minute 
rounded  spore  [a,  Fig.  318),  which  lodges  on  the 
decaying  material.  When  the  spore  germinates, 
it  sends  out  a  delicate  thread  which  grows  rapidly 
in  length  and  forms  very  many  branches  which 
soon  permeate  every  part  of  the  substance  on  which 
the  plant  grows  {b,  Fig.  318).  One  of  these  threads  is  termed  a  hypha. 
All  the  threads  together  form  the  mycelinm  of  the  fungus  (180).  The 
mycelium  disorganizes  the  material  in  which  it  grows,  and  thus  nour- 
ishes the  mucor  plant  (Fig.  317).  It  corresponds  physiologically  to 
the  roots  and  stems  of  other  plants. 

When  the  mycelium  is  about  two  days  old  it  begins  to  form  the 
long  fruiting  stalks  which  we  first  noticed.  To  study  them,  use  a 
compound  microscope  magnifying  about  two  hundred  diameters.  One 
of  the  stalks,  magnified,  is  shown  in  Fig.  319,  a.  It  consists  of  a 
rounded  head,  the  sporangium,  sp,  supported  on  a  long,  delicate  stalk, 
the  sporangiophore,  st.  The  stalk  is  separated  from  the  sporangium 
by  a  wall  which  is  formed  at  the  base  of  the  sporangium.  This  wall, 
however,  does  not  extend  straight  across 
the  thread,  but  it  arches  up  into  the  spor- 
angium like  an  inverted  pear.  It  is  known 
as  the  columella,  c.  When  the  sporangium 
is  placed  in  water,  the  wall  immediately 
dissolves  and  allows  hundreds  of  spores, 
which  were  formed  in  the  cavity  within 
the  sporangium,  to  escape,  6  All  that  is 
left  of  the  fruit  is  the  stalk,  with  the  pear- 
shaped  columella  at  its  summit,  c.  The 
spores  which  have  been  set  free  by  the 
hreaking  of  the  sporangium  wall  are  now 
scattered  by  the  wind  and  other  agents. 
Those  which  lodge  in  favorable  places  be- 
gin to  grow  immediately  and  reproduce 
the  fungus.     The  others  soon  perish. 

The  mucor  may  continue  to  reproduce  itself  in  this  way  indefi- 
nitely, but  these  spores  are  very  delicate  and  usually  die  if  they  do  not 
tall  on  favorable  ground,  so  that  the  fungus  is  provided  with  another 


Mupor.      a,   sporangium; 

b,  sporangium  bursting; 

c,  columella. 


182 


STUDIES    IN    CRYPTOGAMS 


means  of  carrying  itself  over  unfavorable  seasons,  as  winter.  Tliis  is 
accomplished  by  means  of  curious  thick- walled  resting-  spores  or  zygo- 
spores. The  zygospores  are  formed  on  the  mycelium  buried  within 
the  substance  on  which  the  plant  grows.  They  originate  in 
the  following  manner  :  Two  threads  which  lie  near  to- 
gether send  out  short  branches,  which  grow  toward  each 
other  and  finally  meet  (Fig.  320).  The  walls  at 
the  ends,  a,  then  disappear,  allowing  the  contents 
to  flow  together.  At  the  same  time,  however,  two 
other  walls  are  formed  at  points  farther  back,  h,  b, 
separating  the  short  section,  c,  from  the  remainder 
of  the  thread.  This  section  now  increases  in  size 
and  becomes  covered  with  a  thick,  dark  brown  wall 
ornamented  with  thickened  tubercles.  The  zygo- 
spore is  now  mature  and,  after  a  period  of  rest, 
it  germinates,  either  producing  a  sporangium  di- 
rectly or  growing  out  as  mycelium. 

The  zygospores  of  the  mucors  form  one  of  the 
most  interesting  and  instructive  objects  among  the 
lower  plants.  They  are,  however,  very  difficult  to 
obtain.  One  of  the  mucors,  Sporodinia  grandis, 
may  be  frequently  found  in  summer  growing  on 
toadstools.  This  plant  usually  produces  zygospores, 
which  are  formed  on  the  aerial  mycelium.  The  zygospores  are  large 
enough  to  be  recognized  with  a  hand-lens.  The  material  may  be 
dried  and  kept  for  winter  study,  or  the  zygospores  may  be  prepared 
for  permanent  microscopic  mounts  in  the  ordinary  way. 

fVillow  mildew.— Most  of  the  moulds  are  saprophytes  (181). 
There  are  many  other  fungi  which  are  paras'tic  on  living  plants  and 
animals.  Some  of  them  have  i-nteresting  and  complicated  life-his- 
tories, undergoing  many  changes  bofore  the  original  spore  is  again 
produced.  The  willow 
mildew  and  the  common 
rust  of  wheat  will  serve 
to  illustrate  the  habits  of 
parasitic  fungi. 

The  willow  mildew, 
Uncinula  salicis,  forms 
white  downy  patches  on 
the  leaves  of  willows  (Fig.  321).  These  patches  consist  of  numer- 
ous interwoven  threads  which  may  be  recognized  as  the  mycelium 
of  the  fungus.    The  mycelium  in  this  case  lives  on  the  surface  of  the 


320.  Muoor  showing 
formation  of  zygo- 
spore on  the  riglit ; 
germinating  zygo- 
spore on  the  left. 


321.  Colonies  of  willow  mildew. 


FUNGI 


183 


Summer-spores  of 
mildew. 


illow 


leaf  and  nourishes  itself  by  sending  short  branches  into  the  cells  of 
the  loaf  to  absorb  food-materials  from  them. 

Numerous  sunrnier-sjwrcs  are  formed  on  short  erect  branches  all 
over  the  white  surface.  One  of  these  branches  is  shown  in  Fig.  322. 
When  it  has  grown  to  a  certain  length, 
the  upper  part  begins  to  segment  or  di- 
vide into  spores  which  fall  and  are  scat- 
tered by  the  wind.  Those  falling  on 
other  willows  reproduce  the  fungus  there. 
This  process  continues  all  summer, 
but  in  the  later  pai-t  of  the  season  pro- 
vision is  made  to  maintain  the  mildew 
through  the  winter.  If  some  of  the  white 
patches  are  closely  examined  in  July  or 
August,  a  number  of  little  black  bodies 
will  be  seen  among  the  threads.  These  little  bodies  are  called  peri- 
thecia,  shown  in  Fig,  323.  To  the  naked  eye  they  appear  as  minute 
specks,  but  when   seen  under  a  magnification  of  200  diameters  they 

present '.  very  interesting  appear- 
ance. They  are  hollow  spherical 
bodies  decorated  around  the  out 
side  wilh  a  fringe  of  crook-like 
hairs.  The  resting-spores  of  the 
willow  mildew  are  produced  in 
sacs  or  asci  inclosed  within  the 
leathery  perithecia.  Fig.  324 
shows  a  cross -section  of  a  peri- 
thecium  with  the  asci  arising 
from  the  bottom.  The  spores 
remain  securely  packed  in  the 
perithecia.  They  do  not  ripen  in 
the  autumn  but  fall  to  the  ground 
with  the  leaf  and  there  remain 
securely  protected  among  the  dead  foliage.  Tiie  following  spring 
they  mature  and  are  liberated  by  the  decay  of  the 
perithecia.  They  are  then  ready  to  attack  the  un- 
folding leaves  of  the  willow  and  repeat  the  vork 
of  the  summer  before. 

Wheat  rust. — The  development  of  some  of  the 
rusts,  like  the  common  wheat  rust  (Puecinia  gra- 
minis),  is  even  more  interesting  and  complicated    •''-■♦.   Section  through 

,,  ii     i.       »  i,  -ij  TT-i        i.  x    •         1  jierithepinm  of  wxi- 

than  thnr   of  tlie   mildews.      \\  heat  rust  is  also   a       low  mildew. 


323.  Perithecium  of  willow  mildew. 


184 


STUDIES     IN     CRYPTOGAMS 


325. 
ori  containing  teleu- 
tospores    of    wheat 


true  parasite,  affecting  wheat  and  a  few  other  grasses.  The  mycelium 
here  cannot  be  seen  by  the  unaided  eye,  for  it  consists  of  threads 
which  are  present  within  the  host  plant,  mostly  in  the  intercellular 
spaces.  These  threads  also  send  short 
branches,  or  haustoria  (180),  into  the 
neighboring  cells  to  absorb  nutriment. 

The  resting- spores  of  wheat  rust  are 
produced  in  late  summer,  when  they  may 
be  found  in  black  lines  breaking  through 
the  epidermis  of  the  wheat-stalk.  They 
are  formed  in  masses,  called  sori  (Fig. 
325),  from  the  ends  of  numerous  crowded 
mycelial  strands  just  beneath  the  epider- 
mis of  the  host.  The  individual  spores 
are  very  small  and  can  be  well  studied 
only  with  high  powers  of  the  microscope 
(X  about  400).  They  are  brown  two- 
celled  bodies  with  a  thick  wall  (Fig. 
326).  Since  they  are  the  resting-  or  win- 
ter-spores, they  are  termed  teleutospores 
("completed  spores")-  They  usually  do  not  fall,  but  remain  in  the 
sori  during  winter.  The  following  spring  each  cell  of  the  teleutospore 
puts  forth  a  rather  stout  thread,  which  does  not  grow  more  than  sev- 
eral times  the  length  of  the  spore  and  terminates  in  a  blunt 
extremity  (Fig.  327).  This  germ-tube,  pi-nmiicclium,  now 
becomes  divided  into  four  cells  by  cross-walls,  which  are 
formed  from  the  top  downwards.  Each  cell  gives  rise  to  a 
short,  pointed  branch  which,  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours, 
forms  a  single  small  spore  at  its  summit.  In  Fig.  327  a 
germinating  spore  is  drawn  to  show  the  basidium,  h,  divided 
into  four  cells,  each  producing  a  short  branch 
with  a  little  sporidium,  s. 

A  most  remarkable  circumstance  in  the 
life-history  of  the  wheat  rust  is  the  fact  that 
the  mycelium  produced  by  the  teleutospore 
can  live  only  in  barberry  leaves,  and  it  fol- 
lows that  if  no  barberry  bushes  are  in 
the  neighborhood  the  sporidia  finally  perish. 
Those  which  happen  to  lodge  on  a  barberry 
bush  germinate  immediately,  producing  a  mycelium  which  enters  the 
barberry  leaf  and  grows  within  its  tissues.  Very  soon  the  fungus 
procluces  a  qew  kind  of  spores  on  the  barberry  leaves.     These  are 


326. 
Teleutospore 
of  wheat  rust. 


FUNGI 


185 


328.  Leaf  of  barberry  with  cluster-cups. 


called  cecidiospores.  They  are  formed  in  long  ehnins  in  little  fringed 
cups,  or  cecidia,  which  appear  in  groups  on  the  lower  side  of  the  leaf 
(Fig.  328).  These  orange  or  yellow  eeeidia  are  termed  cluster-cups. 
In  Fig.  329  is  shown  a  cross-section  of  one  of  the  cups,  outlining 
^^,,,^  the    long  chains  of   spores,  and  the 

mycelium  in  the  tissues. 

The  a?eidiospores  are  formed  in 
the  spring,  and  after  they  have  been 
set  free  some  of  them  lodge  on  wheat 
or  other  grasses,  where  they  germi- 
nate immediately.  The  germ-tube 
enters  the  leaf  through  a  stomate, 
whence  it  spreads  among  the  cells  of  the  wheat  plant.  During  sum- 
mer one-celled  wedospores  ("blight  spores")  are  produced  in  a  man- 
ner similar  to  the  teleutospores.  These  are  capable  of  germinating 
immediately  and  serve  to  disseminate  the  fungus  during  the  summer 
on  other  wheat  plants  or  grasses  (Fig.  330).  Late  in  the  season, 
teleutospores  are  again  produced, 
completing  the  life  cycle  of  the 
plant. 

Many  rusts  beside  Puecinia 
graminis  produce  different  spore- 
forms  on  different  plants.  The 
phenomenon  is  called  hetcroecism, 
and  was  first  shown  to  exist  in 
the  wheat  rust.  Curiously  enough, 
the  peasants  of  Europe  had  ob- 
served and  asserted  that  barberry 
bushes  cause  wheat  to  blight  long 
before  science  explained  the  rela- 
tion between  the  cluster-cups  on 
barberry  and  the  rust 
on  wheat.  The  true 
relation  was  actually 
.j.jQ  demonstrated,  as  has 

Uredospores  of  since  been  done  for  many  other  rusts  on  their  respective 
wheat  rust.  j^^^^g  ^^  sowing  the  jecidiospores  on  healthy  wheat 
plants  and  thus  producing  the  rust.  The  cedar  apple  is  another  rust, 
producing  the  curious  swellings  often  found  on  the  branches  of  red 
cedar  trees.  In  the  spring  the  teleutospores  ooze  out  from  tbe 
"apple"  in  brownish  yellow  masses.  It  has  been  found  that  these 
attack  various  fruit  trees  oroducing  aecidia  on  their  leaves. 


3L'n.  Sect 


througli  a  cluster-cup  on 
barberry  leaf. 


186  STUDIES     IN     CRYPTOGAMS 

LICHENS 

Lichens  are  so  coiniuon  everywhere  that  the  attention  of  the 
student  is  sure  to  be  drawn  to  them.  They  grow  on  rocks  (Fig.  346), 
trunks  of  trees,  old  fences,  and  on  the  earth.  They  are  too  difficult 
for  beginners,  but  a  few  words  of  explanation  may  be  useful. 

Lichens  were  formerly  supposed  to  be  a  distinct  or  separate  tribe 
of  plants,  and  many  species  have  been  described.  They  are  now  known 
to  be  the  green  cells  of  various  species  of  algse,  overgrown  and  held 
together  (imprisoned)  by  the  mycelium  of  various  kinds  of  fungi. 
The  result  is  a  growth  unlike  either  component.  This  association  of 
alga  and  fungus  is  usually  spoken  of  as  syvibiosis,  or  mutually  help- 
ful growth,  the  alga  furnishing  some  things,  the  fungus  others,  and 
both  together  being  able  to  accomplish  work  which  neither  could  do 
independently.  By  others  this  union  is  considered  to  be  a  mild  form 
of  parasitism,  in  which  the  fungus  profits  at  the  expense  of  the  alga. 
As  favorable  to  this  view,  the  facts  are  cited  tliat  each  component  is 
able  to  grow  independently,  and  that  under  such  conditions  the  algal 
cells  seem  to  thrive  better  than  when  imprisoned  by  the  fungus. 

Lichens  propagate  by  means  of  soredia,  which  are  tiny  parts 
separated  from  the  body  of  the  thalhis,  and  consisting  of  one  or  more 
algal  cells  overgrown  with  fungous  threads.  These  are  readily 
observed  in  many  lichens.  They  also  produce  spores,  usually  asco- 
spores,  which  are  always  the  product  of  the  fungous  element,  and 
which  reproduce  the  lichen  by  germinating  in  the  presence  of  algal 
cells,  to  which  the  hyphse  immediately  cling. 

Lichens  are  found  in  the  most  inhospitable  places  and,  by  means 
of  acids  which  they  secrete,  they  attack  and  slowly  disintegrate  even 
the  hardest  rocks.  By  makitig  thin  sections  of  the  thallus  with  a 
sharp  razor  and  examining  under  the  compound  microscope,  it  is 
easy  to  distinguish  the  two  components  in  many  lichens. 


LIVERWORTS 

The  liverworts  are  peculiar,  flat,  green  plants  usually  found  grow- 
ing on  wet  cliffs  and  in  other  moist,  shady  places.  They  frequently 
occur  in  greenhouses  where  the  soil  is  kept  constantly  wet.  One  of 
the  commonest  liverworts  is  Marchantia  polymorpha,  two  plants  of 
which  are  shown  in  Figs.  331,  332.  The  plant  consists  of  a  flat  ribbon- 
like thallus  which  creeps  along  the  soil,  becoming  repeatedly  forked 
as  it  grows.  The  end  of  each  branch  is  always  conspicuously  notched. 
There   is   a   prominent    midrib   extending  nlong  the  center   of  each 


LIVERWORTS 


187 


branch  of  the  thallus.  On  the  under  side  of  the  thallus,  especially 
along  the  midrib,  there  are  numerous  rhizoids  which  serve  the  pur- 
l>ose  of  roots,  absorbing  nourishment  from  the  earth  and  holding  the 
jilaiit  in  its  place.  The  upper  surface  of  the  thallus  is  divided  into 
minute  rhombic  areas  which  can  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye.  Each 
of  these  areas  is  perforated  by  a  small  breathing  pore  or  stomate  which 


Plants  of  mareliantia. 

leads  into  a  cavity  just  beneath  the  epidermis.  This  space  is  sur- 
rounded by  clilorophyll-bearing  cells,  some  of  which  stand  in  rows 
from  the  bottom  of  the  cavity  (Fig.  333).  The  delicate  assimilating 
tissue  is  thus  brought  in  close  communication  with  the  outer  air 
through  the  pore  in  the  thick  protecting  epidermis. 

At  various  points  on  the  midrib  are  little  cups  which  contain 
small  green  bodies.  These  bodies  are  buds  or  gemmcB  which  are 
outgrowths  from  the  cells  at  the  bottom  of  the  cup.  They  become 
loosened  and   are  then  dispersed  by  the  rain  to  other  places  where 

they   take   root    and    grow    into    new  ^ 

plants. 

The  most  striking  organs  on  the 
thallus  of  marchantia  are  the  peculiar 
stalked  bodies  shown  in  Figs.  331, 
332.  These  are  termed  archegonio- 
phores  and  antheridiophores  or  recepta- 
cles. Their  structure  and  function  are 
very  interesting,  but  their  parts  are  so  r:::$^=^ 

minute  that  they  can  be  studied  only  333.  Section  of  thallus  of  marchantia. 
with  the  aid  of  a  microscope  magnify-  Stomate  at  a. 

ing  from  100  to  400  times.     Enlarged  drawings  will  guide  the  pupil. 

The  antheridiophores  are  fleshy  lobed  disks  borne  on  short  stalks 
(Fig.  331).     The  upper  surface  of  the  disk  shows  openings  scarcely 


188 


STUDIES     IN    CRYPTOGAMS 


visible  to  the  naked  eye.  However,  a  section  of  the  disk,  such  as  is 
drawn  in  Fig.  334,  shows  that  the  pores  lead  into  oblong  cavities  in 
the  receptacle.  From  the  base  of  each  cavity  there  arises  a  thick 
club-shaped  body,  the  antheridium.  Within  the  antheridium  are 
formed  many  sperm-cells  which  are  capable  of  swimming  about  in 


334.  Section  through  antheridiophore  of  marchantia,  showing  antheridia. 
One  antheridium  more  magnified. 

water  by  means  of  long  lashes  or  cilia  attached  to  them.  When  the 
antheridium  is  mature,  it  bursts  and  allows  the  ciliated  sperm-cells 
to  escape. 

The  archegoniophores  are  also  elevated  on  stalks  (Fig.  332).  In- 
stead of  a  simple  disk,  the  receptacle  consists  of  nine  or  more  finger- 
like rays.  Along  the  under  side  of  the  rays,  between  delicately  fringed 
curtains,  peculiar  flask-like  bodies,  or  archegonia,  are  situated.  The 
archegonia  are  not  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  They  can  be  studied  only 
with  the  microscope  (X  about  400).  One  of  them  much  magnified  is 
represented  in  Fig.  335.  Its  principal  parts  are  the  long  vccJc,  a,  and 
the  rounded  venter,  b,  inclosing  a  large  free  cell — the  egg-cell. 

We  have  seen  that  the   antheridium  at  maturity  discharges   its 


sperm-cells- 


335.  Archegon- 
ium  of  mar- 
chantia. 


These  swim  about  in  the  water  provided  by  the  dew  and 
rain.  Some  of  them  finally  find  their  way  to  the  arche- 
gonia and  egg-cells,  which  are  thus  fertilized,  as  pollen 
fertilizes  tiie  ovules  of  higher  plants. 

After  fertilization  the  egg-cell  develop?  into  the 
spore -capsule  or  sporogonium.  The 
mature  spore-capsules  may  be  seen 
in  Fig.  336.  They  consist  of  an 
oval  spore-case  on  a  short  stalk,  the 
base  of  which  is  imbedded  in  the 
tissue  of  the  receptacle  from  which 
it  derives  the  necessary  nourishment 
for  the  development  of  the  sporo- 
gonium. At  maturity  the  sporo- 
gonium   is    ruptured   at   the    apex, 


336.  Arehegoniophore 
with  sporogonia  of 
marchantia. 


MOSSES 


337.  Spores  and  elaters  of  marchantia. 


setting  free  the  spherical  spores  together  with  numerous  filaments 
having  spirally  thickened  walls  (Fig.  337).  These  filaments  are 
called  elaters.  When  drying,  they  exhibit  rapid  movements  by 
means  of  which  the  spores  are  scattered.  The  spores  germinate 
and  again  produce  the  thallus  of  marchantia. 


MOSSES 

If  we  have  followed  carefully  the  development  of  marchantia,  the 
study  of  one  of  the  mosses  will  be  comparatively  easy.  The  mosses 
are  more  familiar  plants  than  the  liverworts.  They  grow  on  trees, 
stones,  and  on  the  soil  both  in  wet  and  dry  places.  One  of  the  com- 
mon larger  mosses,  known  as  Polytrichum  commune,  may  serve  as  an 
example.  This  plant  grows  on  rather  dry  knolls,  mostly  in  the  borders 
of  open  woods,  where  it  forms  large  beds.  In  dry  weather  these  beds 
have  a  reddish  brown  appearance,  but  when  moist  they  form  beautiful 
green  cushions.  This  color  is  due,  in  the  first  instance,  to  the  color 
of  the  old  stems  and  leaves  and,  in  the  second  instance,  to  the  peculiar 
action  of  the  green  living  leaves  under  the  influence  of  changing  mois- 


'^^'li 


Section  of  leaf  of  Polytrichum  commune. 


ture -conditions.  The  inner  surface  of  the  leaf  is  covered  with  thin, 
longitudinal  ridges  of  delicate  cells  which  contain  chlorophyll.  These 
are  shown  in  cross-section  in  Fig.  338.  All  the  other  tissue  of  the 
leaf  consists  of  thick-walled,  corky  cells  which  do  not  allow  moisture 
to  penetrate.  When  the  air  is  moist  the  green  leaves  spread  out, 
exposing  the  chlorophyll  cells  to  the  air,  but  in  dry  weather  the  mar- 


190 


STUDIES     IN     CRYPTOGAMS 


3;!9.  Section  through  a  receptacle  of 
Polytrichum  commune,  showing 
paraphyses  and  antheridia. 

propriately,  "moss  flowers. 


gins  of  the  leaves  roll  iuward,  and   the  leaves  fold  closely  against 

the  stem,  thus  protecting  the  delicate  assimilating  tissue. 

The  antheridia  and  archegonia  of  polytrichum  are  borne  in  groups 

at  the  ends  of  the  branches  on  different  plants  (many  mosses  bear 
both  organs  on  the  same  branch).  They 
are  surrounded  by  involucres  of  charac- 
teristic leaves  termed pcriduL'lia  or  peri- 
ch(etal  leaves.  Multicellular  hairs  known 
as  paraphyses  are  scattered  among  the 
archegonia  and  antheridia.  The  invo- 
lucres with  the  organs  borne  within 
them  are  called  receptacles  or,  less  ap- 
As  in  marchantia,  the  organs  are  very 

minute  and  must  be  highly  magnified  to  be  studied. 

The  antheridia  are  borne  in  broad  cup-like  receptacles  on  the 

antheridial  plants  (Fig.  339).     They  are  much  like  the  antlieridia  of 

marchantia,  but  they  stand  free  among  the  para- 
physes and  are  not  sunk  in  cavities.     At  maturity 

they  burst  and  allow  the  sperm-cells  or  spermat- 

ozoids   to  escape.      In  polytrichum  when    the    re- 
ceptacles have   fulfilled   their 

function    the    stem    continues 

to   grow    from    the  center   of 

the    cup  (Fig.   340,   m).     Tlie 

archegonia  are  borne  in  otlier 

receptacles  on  different  plants. 

They  are  like  the  archegonia 

of  marchantia  except  that  they 

stand  erect  on  the  end  of  the 

branch. 

The    sporogonium    which 

develops    from    the   fertilized 

egg  is  shown  in  Fig.  340,  a,  h. 

It  consists  of  a  long,   brown 

stalk  bearing  the  spore-case  at 

its  summit.     The  base  of  the 

stalk  is  embedded  in  the  end 

of  the    moss   stem    by   which 

it  is  nourished.     The  capsule 

is  entirely  inclosed  by  a  hairy 

cap,   the  calypira,    h.     The    ealyptra   is    really   the 

archegonium,    which,  for  a  time,  increases  in  size 


340.  Polytrichum  commune;  ^  A  fertile  plants, 
one  on  the  left  in  fruit;  m,  antheridial  plant. 


remnant   of   tho 
to  aceommodale 


MOSSES — FERNS 


191 


and  protect  the  young  {^rowing  capsule.  It  is  finally  torn  loose  and 
carried  up  on  the  spore-case.  The  mouth  of  the  capsule  is  closed  by 
a  circular  lid,  the  operculum,  having  a  conical  projection  at  the  center. 
The  operculum  soon  drops,  or  it  may  be  removed,  displaying  a  fringe 
of  sixty-four  teeth  guarding  the  mouth  of  the  capsule. 

This  ring  of  teeth  is  known  as  the  peristome.  In  most  mosses 
the  teeth  exhibit  peculiar  hygroscopic  movements,  i.  e.,  when  moist 
they  bend  outwards  and  upon  drying  curve  in  toward  the  mouth  of 
the  capsule.  This  motion,  it  will  be  seen,  serves  to  disperse  tne 
spores  gradually  over  a  long  period  of  time. 

Not  the  entire  capsule  is  filled  with  spores.  There  are  no  elaters, 
but  the  center  of  the  capsule  is  occupied  by  a  columnar  strand  of  tis- 
sue, the  columella,  which  expands  at  the  mouth  into  a  thin,  mem- 
branous disk,  closing  the  entire  mouth  of  the  capsule  except  the 
narrow  annular  chink  guarded  by  the  teeth.  In  this 
moss  the  points  of  the  teeth  are  attached  to  the  margin 
of  the  membrane,  allowing  the  spores  to  sift  out  through 
the  spaces  between  them. 

When  the  spores  germinate  they  form  a  green, 
branched  thread,  the  jn-otonema.  This  gives  rise  directly 
to  moss  plants,  which  appear  as  little  buds  on  the  thread- 
When  the  moss  plants  have  sent  their  little  rhizoids  into 
the  earth,  the  protonema  dies,  for  it  is  no  longer  neces- 
sary for  the  support  of  the  little  plants. 

FERNS 

The    adder's    tongue   fern,   Ophioglossum  vulgatuni, 
shown  in  Fig.  341,  is  one  of  a  peculiar  type  of  ferns  be- 
longing to  the  family  Ophioglossaeete.     This  plant  has  a 
short,  subterranean  stem  from  which  a  single  frond  un- 
folds each  year.     The  roots  arise  near  the  bases  of  the 
leaves.      The  leaves  are  curiously  divided  into  a  sterile 
and  a   fertile  part,  the  latter  being   a  sporophyll.     The 
sterile  part  has  a  tongue-shaped  blade  which  is  narrowed 
to   a  petiole.      The   young   leaves    are    inclosed   by  the   Opiiio  :lossum 
sheathing   base    of    the    petiole.      The   growth   is    very       vulgutum- 
slow,  so  that  it  takes  several  years  for  each  leaf  to  develop  before  it 
is  ready  to  unfold.     During  its  development  each  leaf  is  sheathed  by 
the  one  preluding  it. 

The  sporopiiyll  is  elevated  on  a  stalk  arising  near  the  base  of  the 
sterile  part  of  the  frond.     The  upper  part  consists  of  a  spike  bearing 


192  STUDIES     IN     CRYPTOGAMS 

two  rows  of  large  spore-cases  or  sporangia  sunk  in  the  tissue.  At 
maturity  the  sporangia  open  by  transverse  slits  and  discharge  the 
inclosed  spores. 

When  the  spores  germinate  they  produce  subterranean  tuberous 
prothallia  which,  however,  are  rarely  found,  and  of  whose  history 
little  is  known.  They  develop  archegonia  and  antheridia  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  and  the  fertilized  egg  produces  the  young  fern 
plant. 

The  generations  of  the  true  ferns  are  explained  in  Chapter  XXIV. 


EQUISETUMS,     OR     HORSETAILS 

There  are  about  twenty-five  species  of  equisetum,  constituting 
the  only  genus  of  the  unique  family  Equisetacese.  Among  these  E. 
arvense  is  common  on  clayey  and  sandy  soils. 

In  this  species  the  work  of  nutrition  and  that  of  spore-production 
are  performed  by  separate  shoots  from  an  underground  rhizome.  The 
fertile  branches  appear  early  in  spring.  The  stem,  which  is  3  to  G 
inches  high,  consists  of  a  number  of  cylindrical,  furrowed  internodes 
each  sheathed  at  the  base  by  a  circle  of  scale-leaves.  The  shoots  are 
of  a  pale  yellow  color.  They  contain  no  chlorophyll,  and  are  nour- 
ished by  the  food  stored  in  the  rhizome  (Fig.  342). 

The  spores  are  formed  on  specially  developed  fertile  leaves  or 
sporophylls  which  are  collected  into  a  spike  or  cone  at  the  end  of  the 
stalk  (Fig.  342,  a).  A  single  sporophyll  is  shown  at  i.  It  consists 
of  a  short  stalk  expanded  into  a  broad,  mushroom-like  head.  Several 
large  sporangia  are  borne  on  its  under  side. 

The  spores  formed  in  the  sporangia  are  very  interesting  and  beau- 
tiful objects  when  examined  under  the  microscope  (X  about  200). 
They  are  spherical,  green  bodies  each  surrounded  by  two  spiral  bands 
attached  to  the  spore  at  their  intersection,  s.  These  bands  exhibit 
hygroscopic  movements  by  means  of  which  the  spores  become  entan- 
gled, and  are  held  together.  This  is  of  advantage  to  the  plant,  as  we 
shall  see. 

All  the  spores  are  alike,  but  some  of  the  prothallia  are  better 
nourished  and  grow  to  a  greater  size  than  the  otheis.  The  large  pro- 
thallia produce  only  archegonia  while  the  smaller  ones  produce 
antheridia.  Both  of  these  organs  are  much  like  those  of  the  ferns, 
and  fertilization  is  accomplished  in  the  same  way.  Since  the  pro- 
thallia are  usually  dioecious  the  special  advantage  of  the  spiral  bands 
holding  the  spores  together  so  that  both  kinds  of  prothallia  may  be  in 


EQUISETUMS — IROETES 


193 


close  proximity,  will  be  easily  understood.     As  in  the  fern,  the  fertil- 
ized egg-cell  develops  into  an  equisetum  plant. 

The  sterile  shoots,  Fig.  342,  st,  appear  much  later  in  the  season. 
They  give  rise  to  repeated  whorls  of  angular  or  furrowed  branches. 
The  leaves  are  very  much  reduced  scales,  situated  at  the  internodes. 
The  stems  are    provided    with  chlorophyll   and   act    as   assimilrting 


342.    Equisetum  urvense;  s<,  sterile  slioot ;    /,  fertile  shoot   showing  the 
spike  at  rt;  i,  sporophyll,  with  sporangia;  s,  spore. 

tissue,  nourishing  the  rhizome   and   the  fertile  shoots.      Nutriment 
is  also  stored  in  special  tubers  developed  on  the  rhizome. 

Other  species  of  equisetum  have  only  one  kind  of  shoot — a  tall, 
hard,  leafless,  green  shoot  with  the  spike  at  its  summit.  Equisetum 
stems  are  full  of  silex  and  they  are  sometimes  used  for  scouring  floors 
and  utensils:  hence  the  common  name  "  scouring  rush." 


ISOETES 

Isoetes  or  quillworts  are  usually  found  in  water  or  damp  soil  on 
the  edges  of  ponds  and  lakes.  The  general  habit  of  a  plant  is  seen 
in  Fig.  343,  a.  It  consists  of  a  short,  perennial  stem  bearing  numer- 
ous erect,  quill-like  leaves  witli  broad  sheathing  bases.  The  plants 
are  commonly  mistaken  for  young  grasses. 


194 


STUDIES     IN     CRYPTOGAMS 


Isoetes  bears  two  kinds  of  spores,  large  roughened  ones,  the 
mac7-osporcs,  and  small  ones  or  microspores.  Both  kinds  are  formed 
in  sporangia  Lome  in  an  excavation  in  the  expanded  base  of  the  leaf. 
The  macrospores  are  formed  on  the  outer,  and  the 
microspores  on  the  inner  leaves.  A  sporangium  in 
the  base  of  a  leaf  is  shown  at  h.  It  is  partially 
covered  by  a  thin  membrane,  the  velum.  The  mi- 
nute triangular  appendage  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
sporangium  is  called  the  ligule. 

The  spores  are  liberated  by  the  decay  of  the 
sporangia.  They  form  rudimentary  prothallia  of 
two  kinds.  The  microspores  produce  prothallia 
with  autheridia,  while  the  macrospores  produce 
prothallia  with  archegonia.  Fertilization  takes 
place  as  in  the  mosses  or  liverworts,  and  the  fer- 
tilized egg-cell,  by  continued  growth,  gives  rise 
again  to  the  isoetes  plant. 


ALTERNATION  OF  GENERATIONS 

In  Chapter  XXIV  the  alternation  of 
generations  and  the  terms  gametophyte  and 
sporoplujte  were  explained.  In  many  of 
the  plants  just  studied,  this  alternation 
is  more  clearly  and  beautifully  marked 
than  in  any  other  groups  of  plants.  In 
each  generation,  the  reproductive  body 
[egg  or  spore)  gives  rise  to  a  new  plant- 
form  or  generation  different  from  the 
parent  generation.  In  the  liverworts  the 
thallus  produces  the  egg.  The  fertilized  egg-cell  is  the  beginning  of 
a  new  plant,  but  this  new  plant  is  not  like  the  thallus  which  produced 
the  egg,  nor  does  it  lead  an  independent  existence.  It  is  the  sporo- 
gonium,  which,  although  it  is  attached  to  the  thallus,  is  not  a  mor- 
phological part  thereof.  Tiie  sporogonium  produces  spores.  It  is  the 
sporophyte  generation  of  the  plant,  and  not  until  the  spores  germinate 
is  the  thallus  again  produced.  The  same  is  true  in  the  mosses.  The 
"moss  plant"  produces  the  egg-cells.  It  is  the  gametophyte.  The 
fertilized  egg-cell  develops  into  the  sporophyte — the  spore-case  and 
its  stem.  We  can  pull  the  stem  of  the  capsule  out  of  the  moss  plant 
and  thus  separate  the  sporophyte  from  the  gametophyte. 


Isoetes  showing  habit  of 
plant  at  a;  b,  base  of  leaf 
showing  sporangium,  vel- 
um, and  ligule. 


ALTERNATION  OF  GENERATIONS         195 

The  fungi  and  algfe  are  omitted  from  these  remarks.  In  the 
former  there  is  nothing  analogous  to  the  sporophyte  and  the  gamete - 
phyte.  In  algas  lil^e  spirogyra,  evidently  the  whole  plant  is  a  ga- 
metophyte  and,  since  the  zygospore  germinates  directly  into  a  new 
gametophyte,  there  is  probably  no  sporophyte.  In  some  other  algfe 
traces  of  a  sporophyte  have  been  found,  but  the  discussion  of  these 
would  lead  too  far  for  the  present  purpose. 

In  the  ferns  the  egg- cells  are  developed  on  the  prothallus. 
Tliis  then  is  the  gametophyte.  It  corresponds  to  the  thallus  of  mar- 
chantia  and  to  the  "moss  plant,"  but  it  has  become  much  reduced. 
The  plant  developing  from  the  fertilized  egg-cell  is  the  large  and 
beautiful "  fern  plant "  differentiated  into  stems  and  leaves.  Since  the 
u  ru  plant  produces  the  spores  directly,  it  is  the  sporophyte  and 
corresponds  to  the  shaft  and  capsule  of  the  mosses.  Both  sporophyte 
and  gametophyte  lead  an  independent  existence. 

As  we  pass  on  to  equisetum  and  isoetes,  the  sporophyte  is  still 
more  conspicuous  in  comparison  with  the  gametophyte.  In  iso6tes  the 
prothallus  (gametophyte)  is  very  rudimentary,  consisting  only  of  a 
few  cells  remaining  within  the  spore,  which  merely  bursts  to  expose 
the  archegonia  or  to  allow  the  sperm-cells  to  escape.  Moreover,  the 
spores  have  become  differentiated  into  micro-  and  macrospores  eorre- 
si)onding  to  the  pollen  and  embryo-sac  of  higher  plants. 

This  gradual  increase  of  the  sporophyte  and  reduction  of  the 
gametophyte  can  be  traced  on  through  the  flowering  plants  in  which 
"the  plant"  is  the  sporophyte,  and  the  gametophyte  is  represented 
simply  by  a  few  cells  in  the  germinating  pollen  grain,  and  in  the 
embryo -sac. 


One  of  the  tuft-mosses  (Leucobryum). 

Outside  and  inside  views  of  a  tuft,  the  latter  showing  the  radiating 

siems  extending  to  the  light. 


344.   Desert  vegetation. 
The  tree  eaoti  grow  only  in  special  regions.     A 


315.   Plants  seize  the  tirs.1  opijortuiiily  to  irrow.      Palis:i<les  of  tlie  Hud 


PART  II— THE  PLANT  IN  IIS 
ENVIRONMENT 


CHAPTER   XXVI 
WHERE   PLANTS  GROW 

326.  ENVIRONMENT. — The  circuinstancps  and  surround 
ings  in  which  an  organism  lives  constitute  its  environ- 
ment. The  environment  comprises  effects  of  soil,  vtois- 
fitrc,  teiuperature,  altitmle,  sunligJd,  competition  with 
(iiiiiiHils  and  other  plants,  and  tlie  like.  An  organism  is 
greatly  influenced  by  the  environment  or  conditions  in 
which  it  lives.  Not  only  must  a  plant  live  and  grow  and 
multiply  its  kind,  but  it  must  adapt  itself  to  its  environ- 
ment. 

327.  The  particular  place  in  which  a  plant  grows  is 
known  as  its  habitat  (i.  e.,  its  "habitation").  The  habi- 
tat of  a  given  plant  may  be  a  swamp,  hill,  rock,  sand 
phiin,  forest,  shore.  The  plant  inhabitants  of  any  region 
are  known  collectively  as  its  flora.  Thus  w^e  speak  of  the 
flora  of  a  meadow  or  a  hill  or  a  swamp,  or  of  a  country. 
The  word  is  also  used  for  a  book  describing  the  plants  of 
a  region  (as  in  Part  IV). 

328.  PLANTS  GROW  WHERE  THEY  MUST.— The  plant  is 
not  able  to  choose  its  environment.  It  has  no  volition. 
Its  seeds  are  scattered  :  only  a  few  of  them  fall  in  pleas- 
ant places.  The  seeds  make  an  effort  to  grow  even 
though  the  places  are  not  favorable;   and  so  it  happens 

(197) 


198 


WHERE     PLANTS     GROW 


that  plants  are  often  found  in  places  which  are  little  adapted 
to  them.  See  the  feni  growing  on  a  brick  in  Fig.  G9. 
Plants  must  grow  in  unoccupied  places. 

329.  Not  only  do  the  seeds  fall  in  unfavorable  places, 
but  most  places  are  already  occupied.  So  it  comes  that 
plants  grow  where  they  must,  not  where  they  will. 
Thei-e  are,  of  course,  certain  limits  beyond  which  plants 
cannot  grow.  Water  lilies  can  thrive  only  in  water, 
and  white  oaks  onl}^  on  dry  land,  but  it  is  seldom  that 
either  the  water  lily  or  the  oak  finds  the  most  congenial 
place  in  which  to  grow.  Fine  large  plants  of  the  lily 
and  strong  giant  trees  of  the  oak  are  so  infrequent,  as 
compared  with  the  whole  number,  that  we  stop  to 
admire  them. 

330.  Originally,  plants  were  aquatic,  as  animals  w^re. 
Much  of  the  earth  was  sea.  Many  plants  are  now  aquatic, 
and  the  larger  number  of  these — as  algas  and  their  kin — 
belong  to  the  lower  or  older  forms  of  plant  life.  Many 
plants  of  higher  organization,  however,  as  the  water  lilies, 
have  taken  to  aquatic  life.     True  aquatic  plants  are  those 

which   always  live  in 
water,    and  which  die 
^^  ii'hfn   the  water  dries 

''^•~ri:\  I'P-     They  are  to  be 

-s-i;;^^^  distinguished  from 
those  which  live  on 
shores  or  in  swamps. 
Aquatic  plants  may 
be  wholly  immersed 
or  under  water,  or 
partly  emersed  or 
standing  above  the  water.  Most  flowering  aquatic  plants 
come  to  the  surface  to  expand  their  flowers  or  to  ripen 
their  fruits.  Some  aquatic  plants  are  free-swimming,  or 
not  attached  to  the  bottom.     Of  this  kind  are  some  utric- 


K^i^l>s?p^' 


346.   The  lichen  grows  on  the  hard  rocli. 


AQUATIC     AND     TERRESTRIAL     PLANTS  199 

ularias,  or  bladder -worts.  In  some  waters,  particularly 
in  the  ocean,  there  are  enormous  quantities  of  free -swim- 
ming microscopic  life,  both  animal  and  vegetable,  which 
is  carried  about  by  currents  :  this  is  known  under  the 
general  name  of  planMon  (Greek  for  "wandering"  or 
"roaming"). 

331.  The    general    tendency    has    been    for    plants    to 
become  terrestrial,  or  land- inhabiting.     Terrestrial  plants 


347.    Sphasnum  bog,  green  anil  living  on  top,  but  dead  anil  dying  underneath. 
Sphagnum  moss  is  used  l)y  luirserymen  and  florists  as  packing  materi.al  for  plants. 

often  grow  in  wet  places,  but  never  in  water  throughout 
their  entire  life ;  of  such  are  swamp,  hog,  and  marsh 
plants.  Some  plants  have  the  ability  to  grow  in  standing 
water  when  young  and  to  become  terrestrial  as  the  water 
dries  up.  Such  are  amphibious.  Some  buttercups  are 
examples. 

332.  Some  plants  grow  in  very  special  soils  or  special 
localities,  and  consequently  are  infrequent  or  are  confined 
to  certain  well-marked  geographical  regions.  Fig.  344. 
Common  plants  are   those  ivMch  are  able   to  accommodate 


200  WHERE     PLANTS     GROW 

themselves  to  widely  different  environments.  Weeds  are  ex- 
amples. Many  plants  have  become  so  specialized  in  habitat 
as  to  be  parasitic,  saprophytic,  or  epiphytic.     Chap.  XIII. 

333.  Common  plants  often  grow  in  most  unusual 
and  difficult  places.  Note  that  some  weeds  grow  not.  only 
in  fields,  bnt  often  gain  a  foothold  in  chinks  in  logs,  on 
rotting  posts,  in  crotches  of  trees,  on  old  straw  stacks,  in 
clefts  and  crannies  of  rocks.  In  moist  climates,  as  Eng- 
land, plants  often  grow  on  thatched  roofs. 

334.  Plants  may  be  said  to  be  seeking  new  places  in 
which  to  grow.  Whenever  ground  is  cleared  of  vegeta- 
tion, plants  again  spring  up.  The  farmer  plows  the 
meadow  or  pasture,  and  immediately  a  horde  of  weeds 
appears.  Any  breach  or  break  in  the  earth's  surface 
makes  room  for  a  new  group  of  plants.  Note  how  the 
railway  embankments  and  the  newly  graded  roadsides  take 
on  a  covering  of  vegetation.  Observe  the  ragweed.  When- 
ever soil  is  formed  at  the  base  of  a  cliff,  plants  at  once 
secure  a  foothold.     Fig.  345. 

335.  PLANTS  AID  IN  THE  FORMATION  OF  SOIL.  —  This 
they  do  in  two  ways  :  by  breaking  down  the  rock ;  by 
passing  into  earth  when  they  decay.  Even  on  the 
hardest  rocks,  lichens  and  mosses  will  grow.  Fig.  34G. 
The  rhizoids  eat  away  the  rock.  A  little  soil  is  formed. 
Ferns  and  other  plants  gain  a  foothold.  The  crevices  are 
entered  and  widened.  Slowly  the  root  acids  corrode  the 
stone.  Leaves  and  stems  coPect  on  the  rock  and  decay. 
Water  and  frost  lend  their  aic..  As  the  centuries  pass,  the 
rock  is  eaten  away  and  pub  erized.  Note  the  soil  which 
collects  on  level  rocks  in  woods  where  wind  and  rain  do 
not  remove  the  accumulations. 

336.  In  bogs  and  marshes  and  on  prairies  the  remains 
of  plants  form  a  deep  black  soil.  In  bogs  the  vegetable 
matter  is  partially  preserved  by  the  water,  and  it  slowly 
becomes  solidified  into  a  partially  decayed  mass  known  as 


348.    A  landscape  devoid  of  vegetiitiou.     W'eslcnii   United  tjlates. 


34U.      A   l;ui.lM-apo   WilU   VuiielHtimi.      ]l„U:ii,d. 


202 


WHEKE     PLANTS     GROW 


peat.  When  dug  out  and  dried,  i)eat  may  be  used  as  fuel. 
Finally  it  may  decay  and  make  a  vegetable  soil  known  as 
muck.  When  thoroughly  decayed,  plants  become  vege- 
table mold  or  humus.  New  plants  grow  on  peat  or 
muck,  and  the  accumulations  year  by  year  tend  to  raise  the 
level  of  the  bog,  and  the  surface  may  finally  become  so 
high  as  to  support  plants  of  the  high  lands.  The  chief 
agent  in  the  formation  of  peat  bogs  is  sphagnum  moss. 
New  moss  grows  on  the  old,  and  the  bog  becomes  higher 
as  time  goes  on.     Fig.  347. 

337.  PLANTS  CONTRIBUTE  TO  SCENERY.  —  Aside  from 
sky  and  air,  natural  scenery  depends  chiefly  on  two  things: 
the  physical  contour  of  the  earth  ;  the  character  of  the 
vegetation.  Attractive  landscapes  have  a  varied  vegeta- 
tion. Imagine  any  landscape  with  which  you  arc  familiar 
to  be  devoid  of  plants.     Compare  Figs.  348  and  349. 

Eeview. —  What  is  meant  by  environment?  By  habitat?  Flora? 
What  determines  where  plants  shall  grow?  What  is  an  aquatic  plant? 
Explain  immersed,  emersed,  free-swimming.  What  is  plankton?  Ex- 
plain terrestrial.  Amphibious.  Why  are  some  plants  rare  or  local  ? 
Why  are  some  plants  common?  Name  some  unusual  places  in  which 
you  have  seen  plants  growing.  Give  examples  of  how  plants  occupy 
the  new  places.  How  do  plants  aid  in  the  formation  of  soil  ?  Explain 
what  is  meant  by  peat,  muck,  humus.  How  are  peat  bogs  formed  ? 
Wliat  relation   have  plants  to  scenery  ? 


CHAPTER   XXVII 

CONTENTION   WITH   PHYSICAL   ENVIRONMENT 

388.  THE  PHYSICAL  ENVIRONMENT.  —  We  have  seen 
(326)  that  the  environment  in  whieli  a  plant  grows  is 
made  up  of  two  sets  of  faetors —  the  physical  environ- 
ment of  climate  and  soil,  and  the  orgriDir  mrironment 
of  competing  aninials  and  plant.s. 

339.  ADAPTATION  TO  CLIMATE  IN  GENERAL.  —  Every 
particular  climate  causes  particular  modifications  in  its 
plants.  There  are  two  general  ways,  however,  in  which 
plants  are  modified  or  adapted  to  climate:  modification 
in  the  length  of  the  period  of  groivth;  modification  in 
stature.  Any  modification  of  the  plant,  visible  or  invis- 
ible, which  adapts  it  to  grow  in  a  climate  at  first  inju- 
rious to  it,  is  acclimatization. 

340.  In  short -sedsoit  cliitiafes,  plants  hasten  their 
growth.  They  mature  quickly.  Indian  corn  may  re- 
quire five  or  six  months  in  which  to  mature  in  warm 
countries,  but  only  three  months  in  very  cold  countries. 
Nearly  all  garden  vegeta- 
bles mature  quicker  from  AM^>C^^^^^^S  \.>....h\'.i,J.< 
till'  time  of  planting  in  the  ^i 
North  than  in  the  South  I 
when  they  are  raised  from  =^*'**'* 
seeds  grown  in  their  respec-  ""  (.uiMi.ntKMi  ..i  ,,.rn  «  """  m 
tive  localities.  Seedsmen  are  ^""'"^^  ^"'^  ^""  '^'^  '^''^  ■'"'^ '"  -''''^=''"*- 
aware  of  this  and  they  like  to  i-aise  seeds  of  early  varieties 
in  the  North,  for  such  seeds  usually  give  "early"  plants. 
Many  plants  which  are  perennials  in  warm  countries  be- 
come annuals  or  plur-annuals  in  cold  countries(14). 

1203) 


204 


PHYSICAL     ENVIRONMENT 


341.  Even  germination  is  usually  more  rapid  from 
northern-grown  seeds  than  from  soutlieni- grown  seeds 
of  the  same  kind.  The  plants  "come  up"  quicker.  Se- 
cure seeds  of  the  same  varietj^  of  corn  or  bean  grown 
in  the  Gulf  states  and  in  the  northern  states  or  Canada 
and    make   the  experiment   (Fig.  350).     The  same  results 

often  show  in 
t  h  e  vegetation 
of  cuttings  of 
trees  and  grape 
vines  from  the 
South  a  n  d 
North.  Vege- 
tation is  quick 
in  the  North  : 
the  "burst  of 
spring"  is  usu- 
ally more  rapid. 
'342.  Plants 
a  re  u s  u  a  1 1  y 
dwarf  or  smal- 
ler in  stature  in 
short-season  cli- 
mates. Indian 
corn  is  a  con- 
spicuous example.  As  one  ascends  high  mountains  or 
travels  in  high  latitudes,  he  finds  the  trees  becoming  smal- 
ler and  smaller,  until  finally  he  passes  beyond  the  regions 
in  which  the  trees  can  grow.  Many  of  the  Esquimaux 
doubt  the  statements  of  travelers  that  there  are  plants  as 
high  as  a  man.  In  these  high  altitudes  and  high  latitudes, 
plants  tend  also  to  become  prostrate. 

343.  PLANTS  ARE  INFLUENCED  BY  WIND.— In  regions  of 
strong  prevailing  winds,  as  on  lake  and  sea  shores  and  on 
hills   and    mountains,   tree-tops   develop   unsymmetrically 


.xjS?i 


-^i^*"^^ 


351.    Evergreen  trees  on  windswept  heights  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 


352.   Oue-sided  holly  tree  growing  near  the  ocean.     New  Jersey. 


353.     Pines  probably  bent  by  winds  fallinc   from  mountains 


206 


PHYSICAL     ENVIRONMENT 


and  are  heaviest  on  the  leeward  side.  Figs.  351,  352.  Ob- 
serve this  fact  in  orchards  in  windy  regions,  and  note  that 
the  most  unsymraetrical  trees  are  those  on  the  exposed  side 

of  the  plantation. 

344.  Trees  often 
lean  away  from 
the  prevailing 
winds.  Fig.  353. 
The  tips  of  the 
branches  of  ex- 
posed trees  usuall}' 
indicate  whether 
there  are  strong 
prevailing  winds. 
Fig.  354.  Observe 
trees  in  pastures 
and  along  road- 
sides, particularly 
in  high  places  and 
Avithin  a  few  miles 
of  exposed  shores. 
Note  the  tip -top 
spraj'  of  hemlock 
trees. 
345.  PLANTS  ARE  PROFOUNDLY  INFLUENCED  BY  SOIL.— 
The  food  supply  varies  with  the  kind  of  soil;  and  the 
food  supply  determines  to  a  large  extent  the  character 
of  the  individual  plant.  On  i)oor  soils  plants  are  small; 
on  rich  soils  they  are  large.  The  difference  between  pojjr 
and  good  yields  of  wheat,  or  any  other  crop,  is  largely  a 
question  of  soil.  The  farmer  reinforces  his  poor  soils  by 
the  addition  of  fertilizers,  in  order  to  make  his  plants  vary 
into  larger  or  more  productive  individuals. 

34G.  The  moisture-content  of  the  soil  exerts  a  marked 
influence  on  plants.     We  have  found  (154)  that  a  large 


354.     A  tree  tliat  sliows  wlii 

Oklahoma. 


;iy  t)io  wiiid  blows. 


PLANTS  ARE  INFLUENCED  BY  SOIL      207 

part  of  the  plant -substance  is  watei-.  The  water  is  not 
only  itself  plant-food,  but  it  carries  other  foods  into  the 
plant  and  transports  them  from  tissue  to  tissue.  However 
rich  a  soil  may  be  in  mineral  plant-foods,  it  is  inert  if  it 
contains  no  moisture.  The  cJiaracter  of  the  plant  is  often 
determined  more  hi/  the  moisture  in  the  soil  than  by  all  the 
other  food  materials.  Note  how  rank  the  plants  are  in  low 
places.    Observe  how  the  weeds  grow  about  the  barn  where 


355.    "Lodged"  oats.     On  ri(di  gi-ouTid  the  grain  is  often  broken  by  wind  and  rain, 
the  plants  having  grown  so  hea\'y  as  to  be  unable  to  support  themselves. 

the  soil  is  not  ouly  rich  but  where  moisture  is  distributed 
from  the  eaves.  Contrast  with  these  instances  the  puny 
plants  which  gi-ow  in  dry  places.  In  dry  countries  irriga- 
tion is  employed  to  make  plants  grow  vigorously.  In 
moist  and  rich  soil  plants  may  grow  so  fast  and  so  tall 
as  not  to  be  able  to  withstand  the  wind,  as  in  Fig.  355. 

347.  PLANTS  ARE  INFLUENCED  BY  THE  EXPOSURE  OF  THE 
PLACE  IN  WHICH  THEY  GROW.— The  particular  site  or  out- 
look is  known  as  the  exposure  or  aspect.  The  exposure, 
for  instance,  may  be  southward,  eastward,  bleak,  warm, 


208 


PHYSICAL     ENVIRONMENT 


cold.  A  favorable  exposure  for  any  plant  is  one  which 
supplies  the  requisite  amount  of  warmth,  room,  sunlight, 
moisture,  and  plant-food,  and  immunity  from  severe  winds 
and  other  destructive  agencies.  Against  the  edge  of  a 
forest  (Fig.  356)  or  at  the  base  of  a  cliff,  certain  plants 
thrive  unusually  well.     Note  the  plants  of  any  kind  grow- 


356.    Tlie  flowering  dogwood  is  seen  ;it  its  best  along  tlie  margins  ol  the 


ing  in  different  exposures:  observe  that  they  vary  in 
stature,  time  of  maturity,  color  of  foliage  and  flowers, 
productiveness,  size  of  leaves  and  flowers,  longevity. 

Review. — Contrast  physical  and  organic  environments.  How  are 
plants  modified  by  climate?  Define  acclimatization.  Explain  how  time 
of  maturity  is  influenced  by  climate.  How  is  germination  influenced  ? 
Explain  how  climate  influences  stature.  How  do  winds  affect  plants  ? 
How  are  plants  influenced  by  soil  t    By  soil  moisture  T     Exposure  ? 


CHAPTER   XXVIII 
COMPETITION  WITH  FELLOWS 

348.  THE  FACT  OF  STRUGGLE  FOR  EXISTENCE.— We 
have  seen  (Chapter  IX)  that  branches  contend  amongst 
themselves  for  opj)ortunity  to  live  and  grow.  Similarly, 
separate  plants  contend  with  each  other.  We  shall  ob- 
serve that  this  is  true;  but  we  are  compelled  to  believe  it 
by  considering  the  efforts  which  all  plants  make  to  propa- 
gate themselves.  The  earth  is  filled  tvith  plants.  It  is 
chiefly  when  plants  die  or  are  killed  that  places  are  made 
for  others.  Every  one  of  these  plants  puts  forth  its 
utmost  effort  to  perpetuate  its  kind.  It  produces  seeds 
by  the  score  or  even  by  the  thousand.  In  some  instances 
it  propagates  also  by  means  of  vegetative  parts.  If  the 
earth  is  full  and  if  every  plant  endeavors  to  multiply  its 
kind,  there  must  be  struggle  for  existence. 

349.  The  effects  of  struggle  for  existence  are  of  three 
general  categories:  (1)  the  seed  or  spore  may  find  no 
opportunity  to  grow;  (2)  sooner  or  later  the  plant  may 
be  killed;  (3)  the  plant  may  vary,  or  take  on  new  char- 
acters, to  adapt  itself  to  the  conditions  in  which  it  grows. 
Consider  the  crop  of  seeds  which  any  plant  produces:  how 
many  germinate  ?  how  many  of  the  young  plants  reach 
maturity  ?  Note  the  profusion  of  seedlings  under  the 
maples  and  elms,  and  then  consider  how  few  maple  and 
elm  trees  there  are.  Count  the  seeds  on  any  plant  and 
imagine  that  each  one  makes  a  plant:  where  will  all 
these  new  plants  find  a  place  in  which  to  grow  ? 

350.  WHAT  STRUGGLE  FOR  EXISTENCE  IS.— Struggle 
for   existence    with    fellows    is    competition    for   room  or 

N  (209) 


357.    There  is  no  opportunity  tor 


I  tield  of  good  whea 


^P^^^s?^^^^'^- 

•^^sSs^                    j^,j^>  Aiti 

...,--^^ri 

IH^^^I 

&  |§*.*V 

^|^»^;4r:' 

•-i^m-*- 

.  *„  .T,  f ^"^MEiSfeT^  ' 

*^'^'l^^&^ 

■,x*i5^r#5^ 

Divergence  of  character  in  a  cornfield. 


WHAT     STRUGGLE     FOR     EXISTENCE     IS 


211 


The  tree  hns  appropriated  the  food 
that  a  large  area  remains  hare  of 

tion  for  every  inch  of  its 
not  populated  with  plants 
cently  been  moved.  If  the 
his  soil  frequently',  various 
plants  get  a  foothold,  and 
these  plants  he  calls  weeds. 
Determine  how  much  room 
an  apple  tree,  or  other  plant, 
occupies  :  then  calculate 
how  much  space  would  be 
required  for  all  the  seed- 
lings of  that  tree  or  plant. 
The  (jreafer  Hip  popnhition 
"/«>'!/  (it'''<i,  fhc  less  rJi(i)ire 
hare  other  phmfs  fo  </(iin  a 
foothold.  When  tlie  wheat 
completely  covers  the 
ground,  as  in  Fig.  3.") 7, 
there  are  no  weeds  to  l)e 
seen. 

352.  Plants  of  different 
form  and  habit  may  grow 


space,  for  food 
and  moisture  in 
the  soil,  for 
light.  We  may 
consider  exam- 
ples in  each  of 
these  three  cate- 
gories. 

351.    If    the 
earth     is     filled 
with     plants  , 
there    must    be 
sharp   competi- 
surface.     If  any  good  soil   is 
it  is  usually  because  it  has  re- 
farmer  does  not  move   or  till 


and  moisture,  so 
vegetation. 


3G0.   Tlie  clematis  elimhing  into  the  sunlight. 
Compare  Fig.  73, 


361.   Low  shade-loving  plants  on  the  forest  floor. 


riG2.    A  primeval  pine  forest. 
Along  the  roadway  foreign  vegetation  has  cniiio  in.     MidiiKJi 


DTVEEGENCE    OF    CHARACTER  213 

together,  and  thereby  the  area  may  support  more  plants  than 
iroiild  be  possible  if  only  one  kind  ivere  growing  on  it.  This 
principle  has  been  called  by  Darwin  the  divergence  of 
character.       When  an  area  is  occupied   by   one  kind  of 


303.    On  the  top  of  an  evergreen  forest. 

plant,  another  kind  may  grow  between  or  beneath.  Oulj' 
rarely  do  plants  of  close  botanical  relationship  grow  to- 
gether in  compact  communities.  A  field  which  is  full  of 
corn  may  grow  pumpkins  between.  Fig.  358.  A  full 
meadow  may  grow  white  clover  in  the  bottom.  In  a  dense 
wood   herbs   may  grow  on   the   forest   floor.      When    au. 


214 


COMPETITION     WITH     FELLOWS 


orchard  can  support  no 
more  trees,  weeds  may  grow 
beneath. 

353.  We  have  learned 
(25,  26)  that  roots  go  far  and 
wide  for  food  and  moisture. 
The  plant  that  is  first  es- 
tablished appropriates  the 
food  to  itself  and  new- 
comers find  difficulty  in 
gaining  a  foothold.  Note 
the  bare  area  near  the  elm 
tree  in  Fig.  359.  Recall 
how  difificult  it  is  to  make 
phmts    grow    when    planted 

under    trees.     This  is  partly    due    to   the    interceptmg  of 

the   rain   by    the  tree-top,  partly  to  shade,  and  partly  to 

lack   of   available   food   and    moisture    in   the    soil.     The 

farmer  knows  that  he  can- 
not   hope    to   secure   good 

crops  near  large  trees,  even 

beyond  the  point  at  which 

the  trees  intercept  the  rain 

and  light.     It  is  difiBcult  to 

establish  new  trees  in  the 

vacancies  in  an  old  orchard. 
354.    In    Chapter   VIII 

we  studied  the  relation  of 

the  plant  and  its  parts  to 

sunlight.  Plants  also  com- 
pete with  each  other  for 

light.     Plants  climb  to  get 

to  the  light  (Chapter  XVI) . 

Fig.     360.       Some    plants 

have    become    adapted    to 


The  forest  centpr.  Looking  from  the 
woods,  with  the  forest  rim  shown  in 
fig.  3C6  seen  io  tUe  distasce. 


STRUGGLE    FOR    SUNLIGHT  215 

subdued  or  transmitted  light,  but  no  green  plants  can  grow 
in  darkness.  The  low  plants  in  forests  are  shade -lovers. 
Fig.  361.  Note  the  plants  which  seem  to  be  shade -lovers 
and  those  which  prefer  full  sunlight.  Some  plants  adapt 
themselves  to  both  sun  and  shade.  Most  ferns  are  shade- 
lovers. 

355.  In    the   midst    of    dense    plant    populations,   each 
individual   grows  upwards  for   sunlight.     Thus  are  for- 


366.   The  forest  rim.     Lodking  tow. 


ests  made  :  the  competing  trees  become  long  slender  boles 
with  a  mantle  of  foliage  at  the  top.  The  side  branches  die 
for  lack  of  light  and  food,  and  they  fall  from  decay  or  are 
broken  by  storm  ;  the  wounds  are  healed,  and  the  bole 
becomes  symmetrical  and  trim.  Fig.  362  shows  the  inte- 
rior of  a  primeval  pine  forest.  Note  the  bare  trunks  and 
the  sparse  vegetation  on  the  dim  forest  floor.  Fig.  363  is 
the  top  of  a  great  forest.  With  these  pictures  compare 
Figs.  75  and  76.  Fig.  357  shows  a  deep  wheat  forest. 
A  lone  survivor  of  a  primeval  forest  is  shown  in  Fig   364. 


367.   The  foliage  bank  of  a  tangle. 


368.    View  just  inside  the  tangle. 


BTRUGGLE    FOR    SUNLIGHT  217 

In  dense  plantations,  plants  tend  to  grow  to  a  single  stem. 
When  these  same  phmts  are  grown  in  open  or  cultivated 
grounds,  thoj  often  become  bushy  or  develop  more  than 
one  trunk.  In  what  places  have  you  seen  trees  with 
more  than  one  trunk  f 

356.  On  the  margins  of  dense  populations,  each  indi- 
vidual grows  outwards  for  sunlight.  Note  the  dense 
forest  rim  :  then  plunge  through  it,  and  stand  by  the 
tall  bare  trunks.  Figs.  365  and  366  show  these  two 
views  of  the  same  forest.  Note  the  kinds  of  trees  and 
other  plants  that  grow  in  areas  similar  to  those  depicted 
in  these  illustrations.  Note  the  dense  wall  of  foliage  in 
Pig.  367,  and  the  thin  brushy  area  just  behind  it  in  Fig. 
368.  Observe  the  denser  and  greener  foliage  on  the  out- 
side rows  in  thick  orchards.  Consider  how  the  plants 
extend  over  the  borders  in  dense  flower-beds.  Note 
where  the  best  foliaged  plants  are  in  the  greenhouse. 
Notice  the  foliage  on  the  outer  rows  in  a  very  thick 
cornfield. 

Review. — Why  is  there  struggle  for  existeut-e  ?  How  docs  it 
affect  plants?  Tell  what  it  is.  How  do  plants  compete  for  space? 
What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  "divergence  of  character"?  Give  ex- 
amples, flow  do  plants  compete  for  food  from  the  soil  ?  In  what 
respects  have  plaiits  become  adapted  to  the  light  relation?  How  do 
plants  pjrow  in  dense  plantations?  On  the  margins  of  these  planta- 
tions? You  know  some  tree  or  other  plant :  describe  how  it  has 
adapted  itself  to  competition  with  its  fellows. 


A  danileiiou  knoll  in  stiade  and  sun. 


369.   A  hydrophytic  society.     New  York, 


370.  A  mesophytic  society.    Michigan. 


CHAPTER    XXIX 
PLAN!   SOCIETIES 

357.  WHAT  PLANT  SOCIETIES  ARE.— In  the  long  course 
of  evolution,  in  which  plants  have  been  accommodating 
themselves  to  the  varying  conditions  in  which  they  are 
obliged  to  grow,  plants  have  become  adapted  to  erenj 
different  environment.  Certain  plants,  therefore,  may  live 
together  or  near  each  other,  all  enjoying  the  same  con- 
ditions and  surroundings.  These  aggregations  of  plants 
which  are  adapted  to  similar  conditions  are  known  as 
plant  societies. 

358.  Moisture  and  temperature  are  the  leading  factors 
in  determining  plant  societies.  The  great  geographical 
societies  or  aggregations  of  the  plant  world  are  for  con- 
venience associated  chiefl}'  with  the  moisture  su])ply. 
These  are:  (1)  hydrophytic  or  wet-region  societies, 
comprising  aquatic  and  bog  vegetation  (Fig.  3G9) ;  (2) 
xerophytic  or  arid-region  societies,  comprising  desert  and 
most  sand-region  vegetation  (Fig.  344);  (3)  mesophytic 
or  mid-region  societies,  comprising  the  vegetation  in 
intermediate  regions  (Fig.  370).  Mesophytic  vegetation 
is  characteristic  of  most  regions  which  are  fitted  for 
agriculture.  The  halophytic  or  salt-loving  societies  are 
also  distinguished,  comprising  the  seashore  and  salt -area 
vegetation  (Fig.  371).  Much  of  the  characteristic 
scenery  of  any  place  is  due  to  its  plant  societies  (337). 
Xerophytic  plants  usually  have  small  and  hard  leaves, 
appai-ently  to  prevent  too  rapid  transpiration.  Usually, 
also,  they  are  characterized  by  stiff  growth,  hairy  cover- 
ing, spines,  or  a  much -contracted  plant-body,  and  often 

(219) 


220 


PLANT     SOCIETIES 


by   large    underground    parts    for    the    storage    of  water. 
Halophytic  plants  are  often  fleshy. 

359.  Plant   societies    may  also    be   distinguished  with 
reference  to  latitude  and  temperature.      There  are  tropi- 


cal societies,  temperate-region  societies,  boreal  or  cold- 
region  societies.  With  reference  to  altitude,  societies 
might  be  classified  as  lowland  (which  are  chiefly  hydro- 
phytic),  intermediate  (chiefly  mesophytic),  subalpine  or 
mid-mountain  (which  are  chiefly  boreal),  alpine  or  high- 
mountain. 

3G0.  The  above  classifications  have  reference  chiefly  to 
great  geographical  floras  or  societies.  But  there  are  socie- 
ties within  societies.  There  are  small  societies  coming 
within  the  experience  of  every  person  tvho  has  ever  seen 
plants  groiving  in  natural  conditions.  There  are  roadside, 
fence-row,  lawn,  thicket,  pasture,  dune,  woods,  cliff,  barn- 
yard societies.  Every  different  place  has  its  character- 
istic vegetation.      Note  the  smaller  societies  in  Figs.  3G9 


PLANT     COLONIES 


221 


and  370.  In  the  former  is  a  water-lily  society  and  a  cat- 
tail society.  In  the  latter  there  are  grass  and  l)iisli  and 
woods  societies. 

3G1.  SOME  DETAILS  OF 
PLANT  SOCIETIES.— Socie- 
ties may  be  composed  of 
scattered  and  intermin- 
gled plants,  or  of  dense 
clumps  or  groups  of 
plants.  Dense  clumps 
or  groups  are  usually 
made  up  of  one  kind  of 
plant,  and  they  are  then  called  colonies.  Fig.  372.  Colo- 
nies of  most  plants  are  transient:  after  a  short  time  other 
plants  gain  a  foothold  amongst  them,  and  an  intei'mingled 
society  is  the  outcome.  Marked  exceptions  to  this  are 
grass  colonies  and  forest  colonies,  in  which  one  kind  of 
plant  may  hold  its  own  for  years  and  centuries. 


A  colony  of  weeds  in  a  barny 


37:i.   The  l)ef,'iiiiiinf»  of  a  forest,  on  a  la' 
weeds,  and  here  and  there  a  young  bush  and  a  forest  tree. 
The  border  is  already  forested. 


222 


PLANT     SOCIETIES 


374.   Tlie  return  to  forest.     Bushes  and  trees  now  begin  to  crowd. 


362.  Ill  a  large  newly  cleared  area  plants  usnally  first 
establish  themselves  in  dense  colonies.  Note  the 
great  patches  of  nettles,  jewel-weeds,  smart-weeds,  clot- 
burs,  fire-weeds  in  recently  cleared  but  neglected  swales, 
also  the  fire -weeds  in  recently  burned  areas,  the  rank 
weeds  in  the  neglected  garden,  and  the  ragweeds  and 
May-weeds  along  the  recently  worked  highway.  The  com- 
petition amongst  themselves  and  with  their  neighbors 
finally  breaks  up  the  colonies,  and  a  mixed  and  intermin- 

fjU'd  flora   is  gener- 
al J  y  the  result. 

oG3.  In  most  parts 
of  the  world  the 
general  tendency  of 
neglected  areas  is 
to  run  into  forest. 
All  plants  rush  for 
the  cleared  area. 
Here  and  there 
bushes  gain  a  foot- 
hold. Young  trees 
come  up :  in  time 
these       shade      the 


ROTATION     OF    FORESTS 


223 


bushes  and  gain  tbe  mastery.  Sometimes  the  area  grows 
to  poplars  or  birclies,  and  people  wonder  why  the  origi- 
nal forest  trees  do  not  return;  but  these  forest  trees  may 
be  growing  unobserved  here  and  there  in  the  tangle,  and  in 
the  slow  processes 
of  time  the  poplars 
perish — for  they  are 
short  -  lived  —  and 
the  original  forest 
may  be  replaced. 
Whether  one  kind 
of  forest  or  another 
returns  will  depend 
largely  on  the  kinds 
which  are  most 
seedful  in  that 
vicinity  and  which, 
therefore,  have 
sown  themselves 
most  profusely. 
Much  depends, 
also,  on  the  kind 
of  undergrowth 
which  first  springs 
up,  for  some  young 

trees  can   endure  ^"''-  '""'  '"""'■  "'^"^^  ^^""^  °^ ''''  roadside. 

more  or  less  shade  than  others.    Figs.  373  and  374  show 
two  stages  in  the  return  to  forest. 

364.  Pasturing  and  mowing  tend  to  keep  an  area  in 
grass.  This  is  because  the  grass  will  thrive  when  tlie  tops 
are  repeatedly  taken  off,  whereas  trees  will  not.  Note 
that  the  wild  herbs  and  bushes  and  trees  persist  along  the 
fences  and  about  old  buildings,  where  animals  and  mowing 
machines  do  not  take  them  off.  A  sod  society  means  graz- 
ing or  moiving.     Consider  Figs.  96,  875,  37G.     The  farmer 


224 


PLANT     SOCIETIES 


J     An  .mu.itK    s(KRtj    111  wliKh  hi\i 
kinds  of  plants  grow  side  by  side, 


keeps  his  wild  pastures 
"clean"  by  turning  in 
sheep:  the  sheep  are  fond 
of  browsing. 

365.  Some  plants  as- 
sociate. They  grow  to- 
gether. This  is  possible 
largely  because  they  di- 
verge or  differ  in  character 
(352).  Plants  associate  in 
two  ways:  hy  grotving  side 
by  side;  hy  growing  above 
or  beneath.  In  sparsely  populated  societies  (as  in  Fig. 
377)  plants  may  grow  along- side  each  other.  In  most 
cases,  however,  there  is  overgrowth  and  undergrowth : 
one    kind    grows    beneath    another.       Plants   which    have 

become  adapted  to  shade 
(354)  are  usually  under- 
growths.  In  a  cat  -  tail 
swamp  (Fig.  378),  grasses 
and  other  narrow  -  leaved 
plants  grow  in  the  bottom, 
but  they  are  usually  unseen 
by  the  (casual  observer. 
Search  the  surface  of  the 
ground  in  any  swale  or  in  a 
meadow.  Note  the  under- 
growth in  woods  or  under 
trees  (Fig.  379).  Observe 
that  in  pine  and  spruce 
forests  there  is  almost  no 
undergrowth,  because  there 
is  very  little  light.  Fig.  362. 
366.    On    the  same  area 

378.    Grasses  and  narrow-leaved  plants  .      . 

grow  between  the  cat-tail  flags.  the  socicties   may   differ  at 


AUTUMN     COLOKS 


225 


different  times  of  the  year.  There  are  spring,  summer,  and 
fall  societies.  The  knoll  which  is  cool  with  grass  and 
strawberries  in  June  may  be  aglow  with  goldenrod  in 
September.  If  the  bank  is  examined  in  May,  look  for  the 
j-oung  plants  which  are  to  cover  it  in  Julj^  and  October;  if 
in  September,  find  the  dead  stalks  of  the  flora  of  May. 
What  succeeds  the  skunk  cabbage,  hepaticas,  trilliums, 
phlox,  violets,  buttercups  of  spring?  What  precedes  the 
wild  sunflowers,  ragweed,  asters,  and  goldenrod  of  fall? 

367.  In  lands  which  gradually  rise  from  wet  to  dry, 
the  societies  may  take  the  form  of  belts  or  zones.  Start- 
ing at  a  shore,  walk  back  into  the  high  land  ;  note  the 
changes  in  the  flora.     Thi-ee  zones  are  shown  in  Fig.  380. 

368.  To  a  large  extent  the  color  of  the  landscape  is 
determined  by  the  character  of  the  plant  societies.  Ever- 
green societies  remain  green,  but  the  shade  of  green  varies 
from  season  to  sea- 
son ;  it  is  bright 
and  soft  in  spring, 
becomes  dull  in 
midsummer  and 
fall,  and  usually 
assumes  a  dull  yel- 
low-green in  win- 
ter. Deciduous 
societies  vary  re  - 
markably  in  color 
— from  the  dull 
browns  and  grays 
of  winter  to  the 
brown -greens  and 
greens  of  summer 
The  autumn  colors 
of   green,   yellow    and 


Overgrowth  and  undergrowth  in  three  series, 
—trees,  bushes,  grass. 


olive  -  greens    of    spring,    the    staid- 
and   the   brilliant  colors  of   autumn, 
are    due    to    intermingled    shades 
red.      The   coloration   varies   with 
the  kind  of  plant,  the  special  location,  and  the  season. 


226 


PLANT     SOCIETIES 


Even  in  the  same  species  or  kind,  individual  plants  differ 
in  color;  and  this  individuality  usually  distinguis;lies  the 
plant  year  by  year.  That  is,  an  oak  Avhich  is  maroon- 
red  this  autumn  is  likely 
to  exhibit  that  color  every 
year.  The  autumn  color 
is  associated  with  I  he 
natural  maturity  and 
death  of  the  leaf,  but  it  is 
most  brilliant  in  lonj^'and 
open  falls  —  largely  be- 
cause the  foliage  ripens 
more  gradually  and  i)er- 
sists  longer  in  such  sea- 
sons. It  is  probable  that 
the  autumn  tints  are  of 
no  utility  to  the  plant. 
The  yellows   seem    to  be 

due  to  the  breaking  down 

f  ^^^p^ffi      and  disorganization  of  the 

I'hlorophyll.     Some  of  the 

intermediate    shades    are 

*L  '>'j'mM      pi'obably  due   to   the   un- 

^  T^W^      masking  or  liberating  (jf 

normal  cell  color -bodies 
which  are  covered  with  oi- 
obscured  bj^  chlorophyll  in  the  growing  season.  The  reds 
are  due  to  changes  in  the  color  of  the  cell  sap.  Autumn 
colors  are  not  caused  by  frost.  Because  of  the  long,  dry 
falls  and  the  great  variety  of  plants,  the  autumnal  color  of 
the  American   landscape  is  phenomenal. 

369.  ECOLOGY.— The  study  of  the  relationships  of 
plants  and  animals  to  each  other  and  to  seasons  and  envi- 
ronments is  known  as  ecology  (still  written  occology  in 
the  dictionaries).     All  the  discussions  in  Part  II  of  this 


ECOLOGY 


221 


book  are  really  different  phases  of  this  subject.  It  con- 
siders tlie  habits,  habitats,  and  modes  of  life  of  living 
things— the  places  in  which  they  grow,  how  they  migrate 
or  are  disseminated,  means  of  collecting  food,  their  times 
and  seasons  of  flowering,  producing  young,  and  the  like. 

Review.  — What  is  a  plant  society?  Wliy  do  plants  grow  in  so- 
cieties ?  Name  societies  that  are  determined  chiefly  by  molstnre. 
What  societies  are  most  aluiiidant  where  you  live?  Name  those  de- 
termined by  latitude  and  altitude.  Name  some  small  or  local  socie- 
ties. What  are  colonies  ?  Where  are  they  most  marked  ?  Why  do 
they  tend  finally  to  break  up?  How  are  societies  made  up  when  colo- 
nies are  not  present?  How  do  forests  arise  on  cleared  areas?  What 
effect  have  pasturing  and  mowing?  How  do  plants  associate?  What 
is  undergrowth  and  overgrowth?  Explain  how  societies  may  differ  at 
different  times  of  the  year.  What  are  zonal  or  belt  societies?  Discuss 
autumn  colors.     What  is  ecology? 

Note.  —  One  of  the  best  of  all  subjects  for  school  instruction  in 
botany  is  the  study  of  plant  societies.  It  adds  deflniteness  and  zest 
to  excursions.  Let  one  excursion  be  confined  to  one  or  two  societies. 
Visit  one  day  a  swamp,  another  day  a  forest,  another  a  pasture  or 
meadow,  another  a  roadside,  another  a  weedy  field,  another  a  cliff  or 
ravine,  etc.  Visit  shores  whenever  possible.  Each  pupil  should  be 
assigned  a  bit  of  ground — say  10  or  20  ft.  square — for  special  study. 
He  should  make  a  list  showing  (1)  how  many  kinds  of  plants  it  con- 
tains, (2)  the  relative  abundance  of  each.  The  lists  secured  in  differ- 
ent regions  should  be  compared.  It  does  not  matter  if  the  pupil  does 
not  know  all  the  plants.  He  may  count  the  kinds  without  knowing  the 
names.  It  is  a  good  plan  for  tiie  pupil  to  make  a  dried  specimen  of 
each  kind  for  reference.  The  pupil  should  endeavor  to  discover  why 
the  plants  grow  as  they  do.     Challenge  every  plaid  society. 


rj 


',-jigiiv.-y  •? 


i^. 


i^ 


Everj'oue  should  learn   to  grow  plauts. 


CHAPTER   XXX 
VARIATION  AMD  ITS  RESULTS 

370.  THE  FACT  OF  VARIATION.— No  two  plants  are 
alike  (IG).  la  size,  form,  color,  weight,  vigor,  produc- 
tiveness, season,  or  other  characters,  they  differ.  The 
most  usual  form  of  anj^  plant  is  considered  to  be  its 
type,  that  is,  its  representative  form.  Any  marked  de- 
parture from  this  type  is  a  variation,  that  is,  a  difference. 

371.  THE  KINDS  OF  VARIATIONS.— Variations  are  of 
many  degrees.  The  differences,  in  any  case,  may  be  so 
slight  as  to  pass  unnoticed,  or  they  may  be  so  marked  as 
to  challenge  even  the  casual  observer.  If  a  red-flowered 
plant  were  to  produce  flowers  in  different  shades  of  red, 
the  variation  might  not  attract  attention  ;  but  if  it  were 
to  produce  white  flowers,  the  variation  would  be  marked. 
Whenever  the  variation  is  so  marked  and  so  constant  as 
to  be  worth  naming  and  describing,  it  is  called  a  variety 
in  descriptive  botany.  If  the  variation  is  of  such  charac- 
ter as  to  have  value  for  cultivation,  it  is  called  an  agri- 
cultural or  horticultural  variety.  There  is  no  natural 
line  of  demarcation  between  those  variations  which  chance 
to  be  named  and  described  as  varieties  and  those  which  do 
not.     Varieties  are  only  named  variations. 

372.  Variations  may  arise  in  three  ways:  (1)  directly 
from  seeds;  (2)  directly  from  buds;  (3)  by  a  slow 
change  of  the  entire  plant  after  it  has  begun  to  grow. 

373.  Variations  arising  from  seeds  are  seed-variations; 
those  which  chance  to  be  named  and  described  are  seed- 
varieties.  Never  does  a  seed  exactly  reproduce  its  pni-eiit- 
if  it  did,  there  would  be  two  plants  alike.     Neither  do  any 

1228) 


THE     KINDS     OF     VARIATIONS 


229 


two  seeds,  even  from  the  same  fruit,  ever  produce  plants 
exactly  alike.  Even  though  the  seedlings  resemble  each 
other  so  closely  that  people  say  they  are  the  same,  never- 
theless they  will  be  found  to  vai-y  in  size,  number  of 
leaves,  shape,  or  other  fea- 
tures. Figs.  381  and  382 
illustrate  seed -variation. 

374.  Variations  arising 
directly  from  buds,  rather 
than  from  seeds,  are  bud- 
variations,  and  the  most 
marked  of  them  may  be 
described  and  named  as  bud- 
varieties.  We  have  learned 
in  Chapter  V  how  the  horti- 
culturist propagates  plants 
by  means  of  buds:  not  one 
of  these  buds  will  reproduce 
exactly  the  plant  from  which  it  was  taken.  We  have 
already  discovered  (17,  118)  that  no  two  branches  are 
alike,  and  every  branch  springs  from  a  bud.  Bud-varia 
tion  is  usually  less  marked  than  seed- variation,  however, 


!lrllOl■-vita^  tree.  Imiii  whuli  seeds 
were  taken  oue  day 


382.  The  progeny  of  the 

seeds  of  the  tree  shown  in  Fig.  381.— 

No  two  plants  alike. 


yet  now  and  then  one  branch  on  a  plant  may  be  so  un- 
like every  other  branch  that  the  horticulturist  selects  buds 
from  it  and  endeavors  to  propagate  it.  "Weeping"  or 
pendent  branches  sometimes  appear  on  upright  trees;   nee- 


230  VARIATION     AND     ITS     RESULTS 

tarines  sometimes  are  borne  on  one  or  more  branches,  of 
a  peach  tree,  and  peaches  may  be  borne  on  nectarine 
trees;  rnsset  apples  are  sometimes  borne  on  Greening  ap- 
ple trees;  white  roses  are  sometimes  found  on  red-flowered 
plants. 

;37r).  Frequently  a  plant  begins  a  new  kind  of  varia- 
tion long  after  birth,  even  after  it  has  become  well  es- 
tablished. It  is  on  this  fact  that  successful  agriculture 
depends,  for  the  farmer  makes  his  plants  better  by  givdng 
them  more  food  and  care:  and  betterment  (like  deterio- 
ration) is  only  a  variation  as  compared  with  the  average 
plant.  Plants  which  start  to  all  appearances  equal  may 
end  unequal:  some  may  be  tall  and  vigorous,  others  may 
be  weak,  others  may  be  dwarf :  some  will  be  worth  har- 
vesting and  some  will  not. 

376.  THE  CAUSES  OF  VARIATIONS.— rr//vV///o».s  ate  due 
to  several  aiul  perhaps  many  causes.  One  class  of  causes 
lies  in  the  environment,  and  another  lies  in  the  tendencies 
derived  from  parents.  Of  the  environmental  causes  of 
variation,  the  chief  is  food  supply.  Good  agriculture 
consists  largely  in  increasing  the  food  supply  for  plants 
— by  giving  each  plant  abundant  room,  keeping  out  com- 
peting plants,  tilling  the  soil,  adding  plant-food.  Fig. 
383.  Another  strong  environmental  factor  is  climate 
(Chapter  XXVII).  It  is  very  difficult  to  determine  the 
exact  causes  of  any  variation.  There  is  much  difference 
of  opinion  respecting  the  causes  of  variation  in  general. 
The  extent  of  variation  due  to  food  supply  is  well  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  383.  The  two  pigweeds  grew  only  five 
feet  apart,  one  in  hard  soil  by  a  walk,  the  other  near  a 
compost  pile.  They  were  of  similar  age.  One  weighed 
%  oz.;    the  other  4%  lbs.,  or  136  times  as  much. 

377.  HEREDITY.— Marked  variations  tend  to  be  per- 
petuated. That  is,  offspring  are  likely  to  retain  some 
of  the  peculiarities  ot  their  parents.       This    passing  over 


SELECTION — EVOLUTION 


231 


of  characteristics  from  parent  to  offspring  is  heredity. 
By  "selecting  the  best"  for  seed  the  farmer  maintains  and 
improves  his  crops. 
It  is  said  that  "like 
jn-oduces  like."  This 
is  true  of  the  general 
or  average  features, 
but  we  have  seen  that 
the  reproduction  is 
not  exact.  It  is  truer 
to  say  that  similar 
produces  similar. 
Fig.  384  represents  a 
marked  case  of  he- 
redity of  special  char- 
acters. The  plants  on 
the  right  grew  from  a 
parent  24  in.  high  and 
30  in.  broad.  Those  on  the  left  grew  from  one  12  in.  high 
ami  9  in.  broad.  (For  a  history  of  these  parents  see 
"Survival  of  the  Unlike,"  p.  261.) 

378.  SELECTION. — There  is  intense  struggle  for  existence: 
there  is  universal  variation:  those  variations  or  kinds  Hve 
which  are  best  fitted  to  live  under  the  particular  condi- 
tions. This  persistence  of  the  best  adapted  and  loss  of  the 
least  adapted  is  the  process  designated  by  Darwin's  phrase 
"natural  selection"  and  by  Spencer's  "survival  of  the 
fittest."     Natural  selection  is  also  known  as  Darwinism. 

379.  By  a  similar  process,  the  cultivator  modifies  his 
plants.  He  chooses  the  variations  which  please  him,  and 
from  their  offspring  constantly  selects  for  seed -bearing 
those  which  he  considers  to  be  the  best.  In  time  he  has  a 
new  variety.  Plant-breeding  consists  chiefly  of  two 
things:  producing  a  variation  in  the  desired  direction; 
selecting,  until  the  desired  variety  is  secured. 


:i8;!.    Variation.  — Big  and  little  pigweeds  of 
the  same  kind. 


232 


VAKIATION    AND    ITS    RESULTS 


380.  EVOLUTION. — Variation,  heredity,  natural  selec- 
tion, and  other  agencies  bring  about  a  gradual  change  in 
the  plant  kingdom;  this  change  is  evolution.  The  hy- 
pothesis that  one  form  may  give  rise  to  another  is  now 
universally  accepted  amongst  investigators;  but  whether 
the  vegetable  kingdom  has  all  arisen  from  one  starting 
point  is  unknown.  Only  a  few  of  the  general  lines  of 
the  unfolding  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  with  numberless 


384.    The  progeny  of  little  and  big  plants. 


details  here  and  there,  have  been  worked  out.  Not  every 
form  or  kind  of  plant  can  be  expected  ever  to  vary  into 
another  kind.  Some  kinds  have  nearly  run  their  couix 
and  are  undergoing  the  age-long  process  of  extinction. 
It  is  believed,  however,  that  every  kind  of  plant  now  liv- 
ing has  been  derived  from  some  other  kind.  Evolution 
is  still  in  progress.  Variation  and  heredity  are  the  wosi 
important  facts  in  organic  nature. 

Review. — What  is  a  variation?  A  variety?  Agricultural  vari- 
ety? How  may  variations  arise?  Explain  each  of  the  three  cate- 
gories. What  are  some  of  the  causes  of  variation?  What  is  heredity? 
Selection?  What  are  essentials  in  plant-breeding?  Wliat  is  evolution? 


PART  III— HISTOLOGY,   OR   THE  MINUTE 
STRUCTURE    OF  PLANTS 


CHAPTER   XXXI 
THE  CELL 

381.  THE  CELL  AS  A  WHOLE.— All  of  the  higher  plants 
are  made  up  of  a  large  number  of  bodies  or  parts  called 
cells.  These  are  so  minute  that,  in  most  cases,  they  are 
invisible  to  the  naked  eye. 

382.  CELLS  ARE  OF  MANY  FORMS.— In  general,  plant 
cells  may  be  assigned  to  some  one  of  the  following 
forms  : 

spherical,  as  in  protococcus  (a  minute  alga  to  be  found 
on  damp  walls  and  rocks),  and  apple  flesh; 

polyhedral,  or  many-sided,  as  in  pith  of  elder; 

tabular  or  flat,  as  in  epidermis  of  leaves; 

cylindrical,  as  in  vaucheria,  spirogyra; 

fibrous,  as  cotton  fibers; 

vascular,  as  the  ducts  of  wood ; 

stellate,  as  in  the  interior  of  leaves  of  lathyrus  (sweet 
pea)  and  other  plants. 

383.  PARTS  OF  A  CELL. — Every  living,  growing  cell 
contains  protoplasm  (171),  a  colorless,  semi-fluid  sub- 
stance, which  is  usually  inclosed  within  a  cell-wall. 
Within  the  wall,  also,  and  sometimes  closely  surrounded 
by  protoplasm,  is  a  dense  body  known  as  the  nucleus. 
The  nucleus  usually  contains  a  smaller  central  part,  or 

(233) 


234  THE     CELL 

nucleolus.  Cell- walls  are  so  often  absent  that  it  is  quite 
as  well  to  think  of  a  cell  as  a  single  nucleus  with  its  attend- 
ant protoplasm.  The  nucleus  is  an  essential  part  of  every 
cell,  and  is  intimately  connected  with  the  wonderful  process 
of  cell -division.  In  some  very  low  forms  of  plants,  as  in 
some  of  the  bacteria,  no  nucleus  has  yet  been  clearly 
made  out. 

384.  NATURE  OF  PROTOPLASM.  — Protoplasm,  with  its 
nucleus,  forms  the  essential  part  of  all  living,  acting 
cells.  It  is  possible  in  many  cases  to  find  a  small  mass 
of  living  protoplasm  ivlth  a  nucleus  hut  vnthout  a  rell- 
wall.  Protoplasm  is  not  entirely  homogeneous,  for  when 
examined  with  a  microscope  of  very  high  power  it  is  often 
found  to  be  of  a  foamy  or  honeycomb  nature.  This  mesh 
or  network  contains  many  minute  granules,  called  micro- 
somes, and  lies  in  a  clear  "ground  mass"  composed  of  cell- 
sap.  On  a  glass  slip  mount  in  a  drop  of  water  some  com- 
l)ressed  or  brewer's  yeast  which  has  been  growing  in  a  thin 
syrup  of  white  sugar  for  twent3'-four  hours;  place  over  the 
drop  a  thin  cover-glass,  and  examine  with  the  compound 
microscope,  first  with  the  low  power  and  then  with  the 
high.  The  individual  cells  should  be  visible.  Note  the 
shape  and  contents  of  the  cells,  and  make  a  sketch  of  a 
few  of  them.  A  similar  study  may  be  made  of  the  sol't 
pulp  scraped  from  a  celery  stem;  of  hairs 
scraped  from  the  surface  of  a  begonia  leaf; 
of  threads  of  spirogyra;  cells  of  protococ- 
cus  ;  soft  white  cells  of  an  apple;  the  thin 
385.  Cells  in  petiole   leavcs  of  various  mosses;    the  epidermis  of 

of    begonia     leaf. 

Vacuoles  at  w.    waxy   plauts. 

l^yl'^uTl^.  385.  VACUOLES.- Protoplasm  often  does 

cium oxalate.         „„(-  entirely  fill    the  cell.     There  may  be  a 

number  of  cavities  or  vacuoles  in   a  single  cell.       These 

vacuoles  are  filled   with  cell- sap  {v.,  Fig.  385).     In  some 

parts,  as  in  buds  and  root -tips,  where  the  cells  are  most 


MOVEMENTS     OF     PROTOPLASM 


235 


actively    dividing,    the    protoplasm    may  entirely    fill    the 
space  and  no  vacuoles  he  j>i-e8ent. 

886.  MOVEMENTS  OF  PROTOPLASM.— Within  the  cell- 
wall,  many  times  the  profopltisni  shoirs  a  tt'ti(Je)\('y  to  move 
from  place  to  place.  This  movement  is 
chiefly  of  two  kinds:  (1)  circulation,  or 
movement  not  onl}'  along  the  walls  but 
also  across  the  cell -body,  as  seen  in  the 
long,  thin- walled  cells  of  celandine;  in 
the  staminal  hairs  of  tradescantia  (Fig. 
386);  in  the  bristles  of  squash  vines;  in 
the  stinging  hairs  of  nettle;  in  stellate 
hairs  of  hollyhock.  (2)  rotation,  or 
movement  along  the  walls  only,  well  seen 
in  the  cells  of  many  water  plauts,  as 
elodea,  chara,  and  nitella  (Fig.  387). 

387.  Besides  these  and  other  move- 
ments of  protoplasm  within  the  cell -wall, 
there  are  also  movements  of  naked  vroro- 
plasm,  of  two  main  types:  (1)  amoeboid 
or  creeping  movements,  such  as  may  be 
seen  in  a  Plasmodium  of  myxomycetes.  or 
in  an  amoeba;  (2)  swimming  by  means 
of  cilia  or  flagella,  illustrated  in  the 
swarm -spores  of  water  fungi,  and  of  some 
algaB,  and  in  motile  bacteria.  By  the  last 
type  of  movement  the  unicellular  bodies  386.  circulation  of  pro- 

,  1      1        i       •     \  n  toplasm  in  a  cell  of  a 

(swarm-spores  and  bacteria)  are  often  stamen  hair  of  trad- 
moved  very  rapidly.  To  see  movement  7^t!\7J^eamo 
in  protoplasm,  carefully  mount  in  water  *^™®*- 
a  few  hairs  from  the  stamens  of  tradescantia  (spider-wort). 
The  water  should  not  be  too  cold.  Examine  with  a  power 
high  enough  to  see  the  granules  of  protoplasm.  Make  a 
sketch  of  several  cells  and  their  contents.  It  may  be 
necessary  to  make  several  trials  before  success  is  attained 


236  THE     CELL 

in  this  experiment.  If  the  microscope  is  cold,  heat  the 
stage  gently  with  an  alcohol  lamp,  or  by  other  means; 
or  warm  the  room.     See  Fig.  386. 

388.  NATURE  OF  CELL-WALL.— The  cell -wall  of  very 
young  cells  is  a  delicate  film  or  membrane.  As  a  cell 
grows  in  size  the  wall  remains  thin  and  does  not  begin  to 
thicken  until  the  ceil  has  ceased  to  enlarge.  The  funda- 
mental substance  of  cell -walls  is  a  carbohydrate  known  as 
cellulose.  The  cellulose  generally  stains  blue  with  hema- 
toxylin. Often  by  incrustations  or  deposits  of  one  kind 
or  another,  the  cellulose  reaction  is  lost  or  obscured.     Two 


:;  'a>--  '.'a.    .^      ®:-^  >)^  '.«^B--@  '^;  S  ^  ^>   ®'^ 


387.   Rotation  of  protoplasm  in  Elodea  Canadensis  (often  known  as 
Anacharis).     Common  in  ponds. 

of  the  most  common  additions  are  lignin,  forming  wood, 
and  suberin,  forming  cork.  The  walls  then  are  said  to  be 
lignified  or  suberized. 

389.  In  all  the  cells  studied  in  the  above  experiments 
the  ivalls  are  thin  and  soft.  In  general,  those  cells  which 
have  thin  walls  are  called  parenchymatous  cells.  Some 
cells,  as  those  of  nuts  and  the  grit  of  pear  fruit,  have 
very  thick  ivalls,  and  are  called  sclerenchymatous  cells. 
In  many  cases  the  cell -walls  are  intermediate  between 
these  extremes. 

390.  Cell -walls  often  thicken  by  additions  to  their 
intier  surface.  This  increase  in  thickness  seldom  takes 
place  uniformly  in  all  parts.  Many  times  the  wall  re- 
mains thin  at  certain  places,  while  the  most  of  the  wall 
becomes  very  thick.  Again  the  walls  may  thicken  veiy 
much  in  angles  or  along  certain  lines,  while  most  of  the 
wall  remains  thin.     As  a  result  of  this  uneven  thickening 


MULTIPLICATION     OF    CELLS 


237 


388.  Bordered  pits  in 
pine  wood. 


the  walls  of  cells  take  on  certain  definite  markings.     Some 
of  the  names  applied  to  these  markings  are: 

Pitted,  with  little  holes  or  depressions,  forming  very 
thin  places,  as  seen  in  seeds  of  sun- 
flower, and  in  the  large  vessels  in 
the  stem  of  the  cucumber. 
Bordered  pits,  when  the  pits  are  in- 
closed in  the  cell-wall,  as  in  wood  of 
pines  and  other  conifers.  Fig.  388. 
Spiral,  with  the  thickening  in  a  spiral 

band,  as  in  the  primary  wood  of  most  woody  plants 
and  in  the  veins  of  leaves.     Fig.  389. 
Annular,  with  thickening  in   the  form  of  rings;    seen 
in  the  small  vessels  of  the  bundles  in  stem  of  Indian 
corn.     Fig.  389. 
Scalariform,  with  elongated    thin    places  in    the  wall, 
alternating  with  the  thick  ridges  which  appear  like 
the  rounds  of  a  ladder.      Fig.  389.      These  are  well 
shown  in  a  longitudinal  section  of  the  root  of  the 
brake  fern   (Pteris). 
391.  MULTIPLICATION   OF  CELLS.— Cells    give  rise    to 
new  cells.     Thus  does  the  plant  grow.     The  most   com- 
mon method  by  which  cells  are  multiplied    is  that   called 
cell  division.     A  modified  form  of  cell 
division  is    called    budding.       Cell  di- 
vision   is   a    process   by    which    two 
(or  more)    cells  are   made  from    one 
original    cell.       Cells    which    have   an 
abiDidance    of   protoplasm    are  usually 
most     active    in    cell    division.       The 
process    is    at  first   an    internal    one. 
The    nucleus    gradually    divides    into    two    masses    and 
the    protoplasm    of     the     cell     is     apportioned     between 
these    two   nuclei;     a    new   cell -membrane,    or    partition 
wall,  is  usually  thrown  across  and    the  cell   is  completely 


^ 

s 

^ 

an 

80 

^ 

o 

fe^ 

^ 

—='- 

te^ 

'^'"' 

^^ 

a.  Markings  in  cell-walls. 
sp,  spiral;  an,  annular; 
«c,  scalariform. 


238 


THE     CELL 


liUO.    Four  stt-ps  ill  procos.s  of  cell-iJivisiuii. 

Mother  cell  at  left,  far  advanced  In  division;  daughter 

cells  at  right. 


divided  into  two  cells.  Fig.  390.  In  some  cases,  however, 
the  nucleus  divides  many  times  without  the  foruiatiou  of  a 
cell-wall.  The  cell  which  began  to  divide  is  called  the 
mother  cell,  and  the  resulting  cells  are  daughter  cells. 

''  <-■  '^  392.  Cell    bud- 

)  ^  /  \  I  '  \  ding  is  a  variety  of 
cell  division  in  which 
I  he  cell  is  not  di- 
vided in  the  mid- 
dle. The  mother 
cell  pushes  our  a 
protuberance,  which 
becomes  separated  hy 
a  constriction  of  the  ivalls.  Cells  of  the  yeast  plant  and 
the  spores  of  many  fungi  multiply  in  this  way. 

393.  lu  no  case,  so  far  as  we  yet  know,  can  the  cell 
divide  without  a  division  of  the  nucleus  and  the  protoplas- 
mic mass.  There  are  two  methods  of  nuclear  division:  (1) 
direct,  as  found  in  the  old  cells  of  nitella,  tradescantia,  and 
others,  in  which  the  mass  of  the  nucleus  divides  by  simple 
constriction;  (2)  indirect,  as  found  in  all  actively  growing 
tissue,  in  pollen  grains,  spores,  etc.  There  are  several 
stages  in  the  latter  process.  The  nucleus  divides  in  intri- 
cate methods,  giving  rise  to  odd  forms  known  as  nnclear 
figures.  Mitosis  and  karyokinesis  are  names  sometimes 
given  to  indirect  nuclear  division.  The  study  of  this  pro- 
cess is  a  very  difficult  one,  as  it  requires  a  very  high  power 
microscope  to  see  the  different  stages.  They  are  easily 
seen  in  cells  found  in  buds  of  convallaria  and  in  pollen 
grains  of  that  plant,  but  may  be  studied  in  all  plants.  The 
process  is  too  difficult  for  the  beginner  to  trace,  but  it  is 
outlined  in  the  note  on  next  page.  Fig.  390  is  not  intended 
to  represent  all  the  stages  in  indirect  nuclear  division. 

Review.— What  are  some  of  the  forms  of  cells?  Name  the  parts 
of  a  living  cell.     What  part  or  parts  are  essential  in  all  cnses?     Give 


KAKYOKINESIS  239 

your  idea  of  the  naiui-e  of  piotoplasin.  What  differences  did  you  find 
between  the  cells  of  yeast  and  those  of  green  alga?  In  what  ways  do 
they  resemble  each  other?  Tell  the  same  of  cells  of  protococeus  and 
of  apple,  or  of  other  material  studied.  What  is  a  vacuole?  What 
does  it  usually  contain?  Name  two  kinds  of  movements  of  protoplasm 
within  the  cell -wall,  and  explain  how  each  may  be  observed.  Name 
and  describe  two  movements  of  naked  protoplasm.  Tell  something 
of  the  texture  of  cell-walls.  What  causes  the  markings  found  on  cell- 
walls  ?  Name  five  types  of  markings.  Draw  two  figures  to  show 
structure  of  bordered  pits.  Make  a  sketch  of  spiral,  annular,  and 
scalariform  markings.  Name  two  methods  of  cell-multiplication. 
Describe  the  process  of  cell-division.  How  does  cell-budding  differ 
from  cell-division?  Name  two  methods  of  nuclear  division.  Which 
is  the  more  common  method  ? 

Note  to  PARAGRAPrf  393. — Karyokinesis  (the  indirect  or  mitotic 
process  of  nuclear  division)  is  an  intricate  subject.  The  details  vary 
in  different  plants,  but  the  essential  stages  are  as  follows: 

Duringthe  restingstage  the  nucleus  is  surrounded  by  a  very  deli- 
cate but  distinct  membrane.  Within  this  inclosure  is  an  intricate  net- 
work of  colorless  {linin)  threads  bearing  very  numerous  granules,  which 
in  stained  preparations  are  highly  colored,  and  for  this  reason  have 
received  the  name  chromatin.  The  network  is  surrounded  by  nuclear- 
sap,  and  often  incloses  within  its  meshes  a  large  body  called  the 
nucleolus.  As  the  time  for  division  approaches  the  chromatin  network 
changes  into  a  definite,  much-coiled,  deeply  stained  ribbon,  in  which 
tlie  granular  structure  is  much  less  noticeable,  and  this  in  turn  seg- 
ments transversely  into  a  number  of  parts  called  chromosomes.  The 
protoplasmic  fibrils  immediately  surrounding  the  nucleus  now  grad- 
ually converge  towards  two  points  lying  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
nucleus  and  at  a  slight  distance  from  the  membrane.  This  is  accom- 
plished in  such  a  way  that  a  spindle  of  nearly  colorless  threads  is 
produced,  with  the  two  previously  mentioned  points  of  convergence 
acting  as  poles.  Meanwhile  both  the  nuclear  membrane  and  the  nu- 
cleolus have  disappeared,  but  whether  these  structures  take  part  in 
the  formation  of  the  spindle  is  yet  an  open  question.  Radiations 
of  pi-otoplasmic  threads  called  asters  sometimes  occur  around  the 
poles,  and  in  a  few  lower  plants,  as  well  as  in  most  animals,  the  pole 
is  occupied  by  a  small  spherical  body  termed  a  centrosphere.  The 
steps  so  far  are  known  as  the  prophase  stages.  The  chromosomes  now 
move  to  the  equator  of  the  spindle,  where  they  an-ange  themselves  in 
a  definite  manner,  forming  the  so-called  nuclear-plate  {metaphase 
stage).     Each  segment  splits  longitudinally,  apparently  on  account  of 


240  THE     CELL 

the  contractive  action  of  the  spindle  fiber  to  which  it  is  attached ;  and 
one  daughter- segment  passes  to  each  pole  {anaphase  stage).  Each  of 
the  two  groups  of  daughter- segments  very  soon  becomes  surrounded  by 
a  new  membrane,  the  chromosomes  gradually  fuse  end  to  end,  the 
nucleolus  reappears,  and  at  length  two  resting  nuclei  are  produced 
similar  in  every  respect  to  the  parent  nucleus  [telophase  stage). 
Meanwhile  each  spindle  fiber  becomes  swollen  at  the  equator,  thus 
producing  a  series  of  dots  all  arranged  in  one  plane.  These  at  length 
fuse,  forming  a  delicate  transverse  cell-membrane,  which  by  the  pe- 
ripheral expansion  of  the  spindle  at  length  reaches  the  lateral  walls,  and 
cell-division  is  thus  complete.  This  process  of  indirect  nuclear 
division  is  one  of  the  most  wonderful  phenomena  yet  discovered  in 
organic  development,  not  only  on  account  of  its  intricacy  and  beauty, 
but  also  because  it  has  been  found  that  hereditary  characteristics  are 
in  all  probability  transmitted  solely  through  the  chromosomes.  The 
longitudinal  division  and  separation  seem  to  be  for  the  purpose  of 
insuring  equal  apportionment  of  the  hereditary  substance  to  each 
daughter-nucleus.  The  subject,  however,  is  still  in  its  infancy,  and 
authors  disagree  both  as  to  details  and  as  to  theoretical  considerations. 

Note  on  Scope,  Apparatus,  and  Methods. — The  work  outlined 
in  Part  III  is  sulficient,  if  well  done,  to  occupy  one  period  of  the 
pupil's  time  each  school  day  for  six  weeks.  These  chapters  are 
intended  only  as  laboratory  guides.  The  pupil  should  work  out  each 
structure  or  part  for  himself  before  taking  up  the  succeeding  subject. 
The  work  in  this  Part  deals  with  only  the  elements  of  the  subject,  but 
it  is  as  much  as  the  high  school  pupil  can  hope  to  take  up  with  profit. 

Apparatus. — The  apparatus  necessary  for  the  work  outlined  in 
these  chapters  on  histology  may  be  obtained  from  dealers  in  micro- 
scopes and  laboratory  supplies  at  a  low  figure.  Schools  should  obtain 
catalogues  from  the  following  and  other  reliable  dealers: 

Bausch  &  Lomb  Optical  Co.,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Eimer  &  Amend,  New  York. 

The  Franklin  Educational  Co.,   Boston. 

Queen  &  Co.,  Philadelphia. 

Richards  &  Co.,  Chicago  and  New  York. 

Spencer  Lens  Co.,  Buffalo. 

Williams,  Brown  &  Earle,  Philadelphia. 

Geneva  Optical  Co.,  Chicago. 

Whitall,  Tatum  &  Co.,  New  York. 

Chas.  Lentz  &  Sons,  Philadelphia. 

Richard  Kny  &  Co.,  New  York. 

Cambridge  Botanical  Supply  Co.,  Cambridge,  Mass. 


APPARATUS     AND     METHODS  241 

The  microscope  should  have  a  one-inch  and  perhaps  a  two-inch 
eye-piece  and  two  objectives  of  say  |-  and  i-inch  focal  lengths. 
By  arranging  the  laboratory  study  of  the  pupils  at  different  times 
each  microscope  may  be  used  by  three,  four,  or  even  more  pupils. 

There  should  be  a  microtome  or  section-cutter  for  use  by  the 
class. 

Each  pupil  should  have  his  own  individual  tools  and  bottles  of 
reagents,  as  follows: 

1  good  razor  (hollow-ground  on  one  side  only), 

1  small  scalpel, 

1  pair  forceps, 

2  sharp  needles  mounted  in  handles  (as  penholders)  (Fig.  199), 
1  medicine  dropper, 

1  small  camel's  hair  brush, 

A  number  of  slides  and  cover -glasses. 

Of  reagents,  stains,  and  other  cheinicals,  there  should  be  the 
following: 

Glycerine, 

Ninety-five  per  cent    alcohol. 

Formalin  (40  per  cent  formaldehyde). 

Clearer  (made  of   three   parts  turpentine  and  two    pai-ts    melted 

crystals  of  carbolic  acid), 
Canada  balsam. 
Ether, 

2  per  cent  and  5  per  cent  collodion, 
Iodine  dissolved  in  water, 

"  "  "  alcohol. 

Hematoxylin, 
Copper  sulfate  solution. 
Potassium  hydroxide  solution, 
Fehling's  solution  (see  paragraph  397), 
Alcanin  (henna  root  in  alcohol). 

The  two  per  cent  collodion  is  made  of  forty-nine  parts  alcohol, 
forty -nine  parts  ether,  two  parts  soluble  cotton.  This  strength  is 
suitable  to  use  in  sticking  sections  to  the  glass  slide  to  prevent 
their  escape  during  the  staining  and  clearing  process.  It  need  not 
be  used  unless  desired.  Collodion  is  often  useful  for  imbedding 
material,  as  indicated  under  the  head  "Imbedding"  on  page  243. 
Pupils  must  exercise  great  care  in  using  carbolic  acid,  as  it  burns 
the  flesh. 

Hematoxylin    stain   may   be  obtained   of   dealers  in  a  condition 


242  THE     CELL 

ready  for  use,  or  may  be  prepared  by  this  recipe  {Gage's  Hematoxij- 
Uu]:  Distilled  water  200  cc.  and  potash  alum  7^  grams,  boil  together 
for  five  minutes  in  glass  dish  or  agate  ware.  Add  enough  boiled 
water  to  bring  the  volume  back  to  200  cc.  When  cool  add  4  grams 
of  chloral  hydrate  and  nf  gram  of  hematoxylin  crystals  which  have 
been  dissolved  in  20  cc.  of  ninety-five  per  cent  alcohol.  This  is 
quite  permanent,  and  becomes  of  a  deeper  color  after  standing  for 
some  time  if  left  in  a  light  place  and  frequently  shaken.  It  stains 
the  tissues  which  bear  protoplasm  and  cellulose  walls,  causing  them 
to  stand  out  in  contrast  with  the  other  tissues. 

Preparing  and  Keeping  Laboratory  Material. — In  preparing  material 
for  the  experiments  outlined  in  Part  III.,  the  pupil  or  teacher  will 
find  it  best  to  get  much  of  the  material  during  the  growing  season 
and  preserve  it  until  the  time  for  use.  Soft  material  should  be 
dehydrated  and  hardened  by  placing  it  in  about  40  per  cent  alcohol 
for  several  hours  to  two  days,  according  to  its  size,  and  then  plac- 
ing it  in  about  70  per  cent  for  the  same  lensrth  of  time.  It  can  then 
be  placed  in  80  per  cent  alcohol,  and  is  ready  for  use  at  any  time. 
When  thus  preserved,  the  tissues  containing  protoplasm  are  some- 
times much  shrunken.  For  this  reason  it  is  well  to  preserve  some 
of  the  material  in  a  liquid  containing  a  great  deal  of  water.  One  of 
the  best  liquids  is  a  2  per  cent  or  2%  per  cent  solution  of  formalin. 
This  preserves  material  well  but  does  not  dehydrate  it.  Formalin 
burns  the  flesh. 

Free-hand  Cutting  and  Mounting. — To  cut  sections,  the  material 
may  often  be  held  between  pieces  of  pith  or  smooth  cork  in  the 
microtome  or  fingers.  The  material  and  sections  should  be  kept  wet 
with  alcohol  during  the  time  of  cutting. 

The  sections  when  cut  should  be  wet  in  water,  then  stained 
with  hematoxylin  for  a  few  minutes;  drain  off  the  hematoxylin  and 
rinse  with  water;  then  use  ninety-five  per  cent  alcohol  to  extract 
all  the  water  from  the  stetions;  then  pour  on  clearer  for  a  few 
minutes.  Put  a  drop  of  Canada  balsam  on  the  sections,  and  they 
are  ready  for  the  thin  cover  glass.     Mounts  thus  made  are  permanent. 

Some  reasons  for  the  steps  in  the  process  may  be  understood 
from  the  fact  that  hematoxylin  does  not  mix  readily  with  alcohol, 
and  balsam  does  not  mix  with  water  nor  with  alcohol.  Sections 
mounted  before  they  are  freed  from  water  become  cloudy  and 
worthless. 

Fixing  and  Microtome  Sectioning. — For  the  purpose  of  preparing 
permanent  miscroscopic  sections  of  leaves,  wood,  or  any  other  plant- 
tissues,  select  typical  specimens  of   the    part  desired    and  cut  them 


FIXING     AND     MICKOTOME     SECTIONING  243 

into  pietH's  as  small    as    cau    be   convenieutly  handled.     These  may 
theu  be  prepared  by  the  following  processes: 

1.  Fixing:  If  the  material  is  to  be  used  simply  for  the  study  of 
tissue-arrangement,  cell-structure,  etc.,  the  treatment  with  alcohol 
described  in  the  paragraph  relating  to  the  preparing  and  keeping  of 
laboratory  material  is  sufficient  preparation  for  the  imbedding  process. 
Protoplasmic  structures,  however,  are  likely  to  be  distorted  or  disin- 
tegrated after  this  treatment,  due  to  the  slow  process  of  killing.  Some 
method  of  quickly  killing  or"  fixing"  the  protoplasm  is  therefore  neces- 
sary. With  hematoxylin  staining  only  a  few  methods  are  available, 
among  which  the  following  is  perhaps  the  best.  Cut  the  fresh  material 
into  very  small  pieces  (the  smaller  tlie  better)  and  drop  into  so-called 
absolute  alcohol  (96  per  cent  or  stronger) ;  after  a  few  hours  preserve 
in  90  or  95  percent  alcohol.  With  otiier  stains  more  accurate  fixing 
agents  may  be  used,  such  as  chromic  acid,  osmic  acid,  acetic  acid, 
etc.,  either  separately  or  in  combination.  The  treatment,  however, 
is  in  these  cases  rather  complicated. 

2.  Imbedding:  The  pieces  must  be  imbedded  in  some  substance 
in  which  tliey  cau  be  held  and  sectioned.  For  this,  collodion  is 
used  for  harder  tissues.  Pour  off  the  alcoliol,  and  add  enough  2 
per  cent  collodion  to  cover  the  material  about  three -fourths  of  an 
inch.  After  twenty-four  hours  tiiis  may  be  poured  back  into  the 
stock  bottle,  and  an  equal  amount  of  5  per  cent  collodion  put  on  the 
material.  The  collodion  contains  ether  and  alcohol,  both  of  which 
are  volatile;  therefore  these  operations  must  be  pei'formed  as  quickly 
as  possible,  and  the  corks  of  collodion  bottles  should  always  be 
sealed  by  holding  the  bottle  neck  down  for  a  few  seconds.  Leave 
the  material  in  5  per  cent  collodion  twenty-four  hours,  and  then 
pour  the  contents  of  the  vial  into  a  paper  box,  which  may  be  made 
by  folding  a  piece  of  writing  paper.  The  size  of  the  box  must  be 
judged  so  that  each  piece  of  material  will  be  surrounded  by  a 
quantity  of  collodion,  and  the  inside  of  thd  box  should  be  greased 
with  vaseline  to  prevent  the  collodion  from  sticking.  The  pieces 
will  sink  to  the  bottom,  where  they  may  be  arranged  with  a  needle. 
If  there  is  not  enough  collodion  in  the  box  add  some  from  the  stock 
bottle.  The  box  should  then  be  placed  in  a  shallow  vessel  on  the 
bottom  of  which  a  little  alcohol  has  been  poured,  and  covered  with 
a  pane  of  glass  leaving  a  very  small  opening  on  one  side.  In  about 
twenty-four  hours  the  collodion  will  have  hardened  into  a  cake  hav- 
ing the  consistency  of  cheese.  The  material  may  now  be  cut  into 
small  blocks  and  stored  in  85  per  cent  alcohol. 

3.  Cutting:     For  cutting  sections,  either  a  hand  microtome  or  a 


244 


THE     CELL 


small  sliding  microtome  and  a  sharp  razor  are  necessary.  Cut  one 
of  the  pieces  of  collodion  into  an  oblong  block  with  the  imbedded 
material  near  one  end.  This  can  be  clamped  in  the  microtome,  be- 
ing held  in  place  by  a  flat  piece  of  cork  on  either  side.  The  collodion 
must  project  above  the  cork.  The  razjr  should  be  adjusted  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  wiiole  length  of  the  blade  is  used  in  cutting.  The 
blade  should  be  tilted  downwards  so  tha*-,  only  the  cutting  edge 
comes  in  contact  with  the  block  which  should  not  be  scraped  by  the 
lower  flat  surface  of  the  razor  back  of  the  edge.  Both  the  collodion 
block  and  the  razor  must  be  kept  flooded  with  alcohol  during  the 
process  of  cutting.  When  several  sections  have  been  cut  they  may 
be  flouted  out  on  a  slide  and  arranged  near  the  center.  Then  with 
a  pipette  place  a  drop  of  ether  on  the  sections.  This  partially  dis- 
solves the  collodion  and  thus  sticks  the  sections  to  the  slide.  The 
slide  is  then  covered  with  water  to  remove  the  alcohol,  after  which 
it  is  ready  for  staining.  Sections  are  ruined  if  allowed  to  become 
dry  at  any  time  after  cutting. 

4.  Stain  with  hematoxylin  for  from  three  to  five  minutes,  and 
wash  off  the  surplus  stain  with  water. 

5.  Drain  off  the  water  and  dehydrate  by  keeping  the  slide  flooded 
witn  alcohol  for  ten  minutes,  or  by  placing  it  in  a  vessel  of  alcohol. 

6.  Pour  off  the  alcohol  and  cover  the  slide  with  a  clearing  mix- 
ture (see  p.  241)  and  allow  it  to  stand  for  ten  minutes.  The  clearer 
removes  the  alcohol  which  cannot  mix  with  balsam. 

7.  Drain  and  wipe  off  as  much  of  the  clearer  as  possible  with- 
out touching  the  sections.  Then  place  a  small  drop  of  prepared 
Canada  balsam  on  the  sections  near  the  center  of  the  slide,  and  with 
a  pair  of  forceps  lay  on  a  clean  cover-glass.  If  the  proper  amount 
of  balsam  has  been  used  it  will  spread  out  to  the  edge  of  the  cover- 
glass  without  exuding.  The  slide  is  now  ready  to  be  examined.  It 
should  be  cleaned  and  labelled  and  put  away  in  a  small  wooden  box 
which  is  furnished  by  dealers  in  microscopical  supplies. 


Box  of  microscope  slides,  aud  a  packet  of  collodion  drying  iu  a  glass  vessel. 


CHAPTER   XXXII 
CONTENTS  AND  PRODUCTS  OF  CELLS 

394.  THE  LIVING  CELL  IS  A  LABORATORY.— In  nearly  all 
cells  are  found  one  or  more  non- protoplasmic  substances 
which  are  produced  by  the  plant.  Some  of  these  are  very 
useful  to  the  plant,  and  others  seem  to  be  discarded  or 
excretory  products.  There  is  considerable  division  of  labor 
among  the  cells  of  higher  plants,  one  cell  or  group  of  cells 
producing  one  product  and  another  cell  producing  another 
product. 

395.  CHLOROPHYLL.  —  Cells  may  contain  chlorophyll 
bodies  if  they  are  exposed  to  the  sunlight.  Chlorophyll 
is  a  green  substance  infiltrated  in  a  protoplasmic  ground - 
mass.  It  imparts  color  to  all  the  green  parts  of  the  plant. 
Its  presence  is  absolutely  necessary  in  all  plants  which  have 
to  secure  their  nourishment  wholly  or  in  part  from  the  air 
and  from  mineral  matter  of  soil.  Review  Chapter  XII. 
Most  parasites  and  saprophytes  do  not  bear  chlorophyll, 
but  live  on  organic  matter  (Chapter  XIII).  The  oval 
bodies  in  the  cell  of  Figs.  411,  413,  414,  are  chlorophyll 
bodies. 

396.  CELL-SAP.— Often  the  most  abundant  of  the  differ- 
ent cell-contents  is  cell-sap.  It  may  contain  a  number  of 
different  substances,  many  of  which  are  in  solution  and  can 
be  detected  by  the  use  of  chemical  reagents.  Some  of  these 
substances  are: 

[  milk  (lactose). 
gra'pe  (glucose  or  dextrose, Cell i-jOe). 
Sugar,  ]  fruit  (levulose). 

cane  (saccharose,  C12H22O11). 
malt  (maltose). 

(246) 


246 


CONTENTS  AND  PRODUCTS  OF  CELLS 


Inulin,  which  takes  the   place   of    starch  in  compositae 

and   others. 
Fats  and  oils,  as  in  flaxseed  and  castor  bean. 
Mucus  or  mucilage,  as  in  orchid  roots,  onions,  quince 

seed,  ducts  of  some  plants,  as  cycads. 
Tannins,  as    in  oak,   hemlock   bark,  and   many  other 
plants. 

Afropin,  in  belladonna. 
Nicotin,  in  tobacco. 
Emetin,  in  ipecac  root. 
Caffein,  in  coffee. 
Alkaloids,     Strychnin,  in  nux  vomica. 

MorpMn,  in    Papavcr  somniferum   (opium 

poppy). 
(Jiiinin,    in    cinchona    or    Peruvian    bark 
tree. 
Resins,  as  in  Conifera}. 

Gum-resins,  Caoutchouc,  as  in  India-rubber  plant. 
Formic,  as  in  stinging  nettles. 
Acetic,  as  in  fermented  cider. 
Oxalic,  mostly  in  form  of  calcium 
Vegetable  acids,  oxalate  (see  crystals.  Fig.  383). 

Malic,  as  in  apple. 
Citric,  as  in  lemon. 
I  And  many  others. 
397.   Sugar  is  found  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  plant 
and  at  all  periods  of  growth.     In  a  few  it  is  crystallized, 
as   in  date-seeds,  squills,  and  others.      Sugar  serves  as  a 
reserve  material  in  such  plants  as  beet,  cane,  corn,  onion. 
Being  readily  soluble,  sugar  is  a  convenient  form  for  the 
transportation  of  the  food  store  from  one  part  of  the  plant 
to  another,  as  from  leaves  to  roots  during  the  fall  season 
and  from  roots  to  stems  and  leaves  during  the  spring  sea- 
sou.     It  results  from  the  digestion  of  starch   (168).     See 
iiote  p.  251.     Su{;ar  in  fruits  attracts  many  animals,  and  in 


TESTS  FOR  SUGARS  AND  OIL         247 

nectar  of  flowers  it  attracts  insects.  To  test  for  f/lHcose  : 
Make  a  thick  section  of  a  bit  of  the  edible  part  of  a 
pear  and  place  it  in  a  bath  of  Fehling's  solution.  After 
a  few  moments  boil  the  liquid  containing  the  section  for 
one  or  two  minutes.  It  will  turn  to  an  orange  color, 
showing  a  deposit  of  an  oxide  of  copper  and  perhaps 
a  little  copper  in  the  metallic  form.  A  thin  section 
treated  in  like  manner  may  be  examined  under  the  micro- 
scope, and  the  fine  particles,  precipitated  from  the  solution 
by  the  sugar  of  the  pear,  may  be  clearly  seen.  (Fehling's 
solution  is  made  by  taking  one  part  each  of  these  three 
solutions  and  two  parts  of  water:  (1)  Copper  sulfate,  9 
grams  in  250  c.c.  water;  (2)  sodium  hydroxide,  30  grams 
in  250  c.c.  water;  (3)  rochelle  salts,  43  grams  in  250  c.c. 
water.)  To  test  for  cane  sugar:  (1)  Make  a  thin  section 
of  sugar  beet  and  let  it  stand  a  few  minutes  in  a  strong 
solution  of  copper  sulfate.  Then  carefully  rinse  off  all 
the  salt.  (2)  Heat  in  a  very  strong  solution  of  potassium 
hydroxide.  There  will  be  seen  a  blue  coloration  in  the 
section,  gradually  washing  out  into  the  liquid. 

To  test  for  oil:  Mount  a  thin  section  of  the  endosperm 
of  castor-oil  seed  in  water  and  examine  with  high  power. 
Small  drops  of  oil  will  be  quite  abundant.  Treat  the 
mount  with  alcanin  (henna  root  in  alcohol).  The  drops 
of  oil  will  stain  red.  This  is  the  standard  test  for  fats 
and  oils. 

To  examine  gum-resin :  Mount  a  little  of  the  "milky" 
juice  of  the  leaf  stem  of  the  garden  poinsettia  (Euphorbia 
pulcherrima).  It  is  of  a  creamy  consistency.  Examina- 
tion under  the  microscope  shows  that  it  is  not  white,  as 
it  seems  to  the  naked  eye.  The  particles  are  yellowish 
or  colorless  and  are  insoluble.  These  particles  are  gum 
resin.  They  have  been  emulsified  by  the  plant,  making 
the  juice  appear  white. 

398.  CONTE^^TS  NOT  IK  SOLUTION.— Starch  is  the  most 


248      CONTENTS  AND  PRODUCTS  OF  CELLS 

abundant  of  the  solid  products  of  the  cell.  Starch  grains 
have  a  definite  form  for  each  group  of  plants,  and  groups 
can  be  determined  by  the  form  of  their  starch  grains. 
Detection  of  adulteration  of  various  products  containing 
starch  is  accomplished  by  the  aid  of  the  microscope.  In 
potato  starch  the  grains  are  ovate,  with  a  "nucleus"  near 
one  end,  as  shown  in  Fig.  391,  In  poinsettia  they  are  dumb- 
bell-shaped, with  two  nuclei  (Fig.  391). 
In  corn  they  have  equal  diameters,  with 
radial  fissures.  In  Egyptian  lotus  they 
are  forked  or  branched.  So  far  as 
known  all  starch  grains  are  marked 
with  rings,  giving  a  striated  appearance, 
due  to  the  difference  in  density  of  the 
a.  potato ;TpoTnsettia;  laycrs.  When  all  water  is  driven  out  of 
''•"'^'^-  the    starch   the   rings    disappear.      The 

layers  are  more  or  less  concentric,  and  are  formed  about 
a  starch  nucleus. 

399.  Starch  grains  may  be  simple,  as  found  in  potato, 
wheat,  arrow-root,  corn,  and  many  others;  or  they  may  be 
in  groups  called  compound  grains,  as  in  oats,  rice  (Fig. 
391),  and  many  of  the  grasses. 

400.  Starch  may  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the  plant. 
It  is  first  formed  in  presence  of  chlorophyll,  mostly  in 
the  leaves,  and  from  there  it  is  carried  to  some  other  part 
of  the  plant,  as  to  the  roots  or  tubers,  to  be  stored  or  to 
be  used.  When  found  in  the  presence  of  chlorophyll  it  is 
called  transitory  starch,  because  it  is  soon  converted  into 
liquid  compounds  to  be  transported  to  other  parts  of  the 
plant.  When  deposited  for  future  use,  as  in  twigs  and 
tubers,  it  is  stored  starch. 

401.  The  composition  of  starch  is  in  the  proportion  of 
CeHioOs.  The  grains  are  insoluble  in  cold  water,  but  by 
saliva  they  are  changed  to  sugars,  which  are  soluble.  Great 
heat  converts  them  into  dextrine,  which  is  soluble  in  water. 


STARCH  —  PROTEIN  249 

Starch  turns  blue  with  iodine  (75).  The  color  may  be 
driven  away  by  heat,  but  will  return  again  as  the  tempera- 
ture lowers.  To  test  for  starch :  Make  pastes  with  wheat 
flour,  potato  starch,  and  corn  starch.  Treat  a  little  of  each 
with  a  solution  of  rather  dilute  iodine.  Try  grains  from 
crushed  rice  with  the  same  solution.  Are  they  the  same 
color?  Cut  a  thin  section  from  a  potato,  treat  with  iodine 
and  examine  under  the  microscope.  To  study  starch 
grains :  Mount  in  cold  water  a  few  grains  of  starch  from 
each  of  the  following  :  potato,  wheat,  arrow -root  (buy 
at  drug  store) ,  rice,  oats,  corn,  euphorbia.  Study  the  sizes, 
forms,  layers,  fissures,  and  location  of  nuclei,  and  make  a 
drawing  of  a  few  grains  of  each, 

402.  Amylo-dextrine  is  a  solid  product  of  the  cell 
much  resembling  starch  in  structure,  appearance,  and  use. 
With  the  iodine -test  the  grains  change  to  a  wine -red  color. 
Seeds  of  rice,  sorghum,  wild  rice,  and  other  plants  contain 
amylo-dextrine.  Amylo-dextrine  is  a  half-way  stage  in 
the  conversion  of  starch  into  maltose  and  dextrine.  These 
latter  substances  do  not  react  with  iodine. 

403.  Protein  or  nitrogenous  matter  occurs  largely  in 
the  form  of  aleurone  grains,  and  is  most  abundant  in 
seeds  of  various  kinds.  The  grains  are  very  small,  color- 
less or  yellowish  in  most  plants,  rarely  red  or  green.  In 
the  common  cereals  they  occupy  the  outer 
layer  of  cells  of  the  endosperm.  Fig.  392. 
In  many  other  cases  they  are  distributed 
throughout  the  seed.  The  grains  vary  in 
size    and   form    in    different    species,   but 

.  392.    Aleurone  grains 

are  rather  constant  within  each  group.  (ai)  in  kernel  of 
They  are  entirely  soluble  in  water  unless  ^^®'**" 
certain  hard  parts  or  bodies,  known  as  inclusions,  are 
present,  and  these  may  remain  undissolved.  The  in- 
clusions may  be  (a)  crystaloids,  as  in  potato,  castor-oil 
seed-,    (.h)  globoids,  as  in  peach,  mustard  ;    (c)  calcium  oxa- 


250      CONTENTS  AND  TRODUCTS  OF  CELLS 

late  crystals,  as  in  gmpe  seed.  To  stud)/  aleurone  grains 
and  their  inclusions:  Cut  a  thin  cross-seetion  of  the 
peripheral  cells  of  a  grain  of  wheat  and  mount  in  alcohol. 
Stain  with  an  alcoholic  solution  of  iodine  to  color  the  grains 
yellow,  and  examine  with  the  highest  power.  Make  a 
sketch  of  a  few  layers  of  cells,  just  beneath  the  epidermis. 
Make  a  sketch  of  a  few  of  the  grains  removed  from  the 
cells.  While  looking  at  the  mount  run  a  little  water  under 
the  cover  glass  and  watch  the  result.  Make  a  similar 
mount  and  study  of  the  endosperm  of  castor -oil  seed,  or 
of  grape  seed.  In  the  castor-oil  seed  look  for  inclusions 
of  large  crystaloids  and  small  globoids.  In  the  grape  seed 
globoids  should  be  found  with  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate 
within  them.  This  experiment  will  require  the  power  of 
i-  or  i-inch  objective. 

404.  Cells  may  contain  crystals.  Besides  the  crys- 
tals which  are  found  as  inclusions  of  aleurone  grains, 
many  others  may  be  found  in  many  plants.  In  onion 
skin  they  are  prisms;  in  night -shade  they 
are  in  the  form  of  crystal  flour;  in  the 
petioles  of  the  peach  they  are  roundish,  with 
many  projecting  angles  ;  in  the  rootstock  of 
skunk  cabbage  and  the  bulbs  of  hyacinth  they 
are  needle -sliaped  and  are  called  raphides  g^.  R^phides  of 
(Fig.  393).  In  the  leaf  of  rhizome  of  skunk 
the  India-rubber  plant  (com-  '^^  ^^^' 
mou  in  greenhouses)  are  found  compound 
clusters  resembling  bunches  of  grapes, 
which  are  called  cystoliths  (Fig.  394). 
These  are  concretions  and  not  true  crys- 
391.  cystoiithiuieaf    |.^jg      In  saxifragc  mineral  matter  appcars 

"f  rubber  plant.—  .  °  „ 

ficus  eiastica.  as  lucrustations  on  the  surface  of  the 
plant.  Towards  autumn,  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate  be- 
come very  abundant  in  the  leaves  of  many  deciduous  trees: 
examine  cross -sections  of  peach  petiole  in  June  and  again 


REVIEW    ON    CELL -CONTENTS  251 

in  October.  To  study  crystals  and  cystoliths  :  section  the 
rootstock  of  skunk  cabbage  or  Jack-in-the-pulpit,  the  leaf 
of  Ficns  elastica,  the  leaf  of  ivy  (Hedera  helix) ;  make  a 
separate  mount  of  each  in  water,  and  examine  with  the 
high  power.  When  the  crystals  are  found,  draw  them, 
with  a  view  of  the  adjacent  cells.  Make  a  similar  study 
of  a  bit  of  tliin  onion  skin. 

405.   Summary  of  cell-contents  and  products: 

1.  Chlorophyll. 

2.  Cell-sap,  and  substances  found  in  solution. 

3.  Starch. 

4.  Amylo-dextrine. 

5.  Alenrone  grains  (crystaloids  and  globoids). 

6.  True  crystals,  and  other  mineral  matter. 

Review. — Name  six  classes  of  contents  or  products  of  the  cell. 
Where  found  ?  Of  what  use?  What  is  chlorophyll  ?  What  is  its 
use?  What  is  assimilation  (170)?  Give  outline  of  the  products  of  cells 
found  dissolved  in  cell-sap.  What  are  the  uses  of  sugar  to  plants? 
Name  some  kinds  of  sugar  found  in  plants.  Describe  an  experiment 
to  test  for  glucose.  Same  for  cane  sugar.  How  may  we  find  the  oil 
in  plants?  Describe  an  experiment  for  the  study  of  gum-resin.  Why 
does  the  juice  containing  it  appear  white?  Describe  starch  grains  of 
potato.  Tell  how  starch  grains  of  other  plants  studied  differ  from 
those  of  potato.  What  are  the  uses  of  starch  to  the  plant  ?  Where 
is  the  plant's  starch  factory?  Describe  an  experiment  to  test  for 
starch.  Name  some  plants  in  which  we  may  find  amylo-dextrine. 
How  does  its  test  differ  from  that  for  starch  ?  What  are  aleurone 
grains?  In  what  cells  are  they  found  in  kernels  of  wheat?  Name 
some  of  the  forms  in  which  we  find  true  crystals  in  plant  cells. 

Note  to  Paragraph  397. —  The  digestion  of  starch  is  produced 
by  means  of  enzyms  or  unorganized  ferments  (i.  e.,  ferments  which 
are  not  bacterial  or  fungal,  but  are  chemical  substances).  These 
ferments,  as  diastase,  are  present  in  seeds  and  other  living  tissues 
containing  starch.  During  dormant  periods  the  enzyms  either  are 
not  present,  or  their  action  is  prohibited  by  the  presence  of  other 
substances.  There  are  various  specific  enzyms,  each  producing 
definite  chemical  changes. 

Grape  sugar  and  its  associate,  fruit  sugar,  appear  to  be  the  forms 
most  generally  useful  to  plants.  Cane  sugar  is  readily  inverted  into 
these  sufirars 


CHAPTER   XXXIII 
TISSUES 

406.  The  lowest  plants  are  unicellular  or  composed  of 
only  one  cell.  Of  such  are  bacteria  (Fig.  128).  All  the 
higher  plants  are  composed  of  collections  or  aggregations 
of  innumerable  cells:  they  are  multicellular.  If  we  ex- 
amine the  cells  of  the  stem,  the  leaves,  and  the  roots  of  any 
common  garden  plant  we  find  that  they  differ  very  widely 
from  each  other  in  shape,  size,  and  texture. 

407.  Any  group  of  similar  cells  is  called  a  tissue. 
Each  of  the  different  tissues  of  a  plant  has  its  own  type  of 
cells,  although  the  cells  in  a  tissue  may  differ  from  each 
other  in  various  minor  ways. 

408.  PARENCHYMATOUS  TISSUE.— Thin -walled  cells  are 
known  as  parenchyma  cells.  When  they  unite  they  form 
parenchymatous  tissue.  These  may  or  may  not  be  elon- 
gated in  form,  and  they  usually  contain  protoplasm. 
Parenchymatous  tissue  is  found  at  the  growing  point 
of  a  shoot  or  root  (Fig.  395);  in  the  mesophyll  (soft 
pulpy  part)  of  the  leaves  (Fig.  411);  around  the  vascular 
bundles  of  stems  and  roots  (Fig.  402/),  and  in  a  few  other 
places,  as  pith,  medullary  rays,  etc.  The  cells  of  this  tis- 
sue may  be  meristematic — in  a  state  of  active  division  and 
growth  ;  or  they  may  be  permanent,  no  longer  able  to 
divide. 

409.  One  important  use  of  this  tissue  is  to  form  other 
tissues,  as  in  growing  points.  Near  the  end  of  any  young 
root  or  shoot  the  cells  are  found  to  differ  from  each  other 
more  or  less,  according  to  the  distance  from  the  point. 
This  differentiation  takes  place  in  the  region  just  back  of 

(362) 


PARENCHYMATOUS     TISSUE 


253 


the  growing  point.  In  the  mesophyll  (or  middle  soft 
part)  of  leaves  the  elaboration  of  plant-food  takes  place. 
Intercellnlar  spaces  filled  with  air  and  other  gases  are  com- 
mon in  this  tissue  of  leaves,  as  well  as  in  parenchyma  of 
other  parts  of  the  plant. 

410.  To  study  growing  points, 
use  the  hypocotyl  of  Indian  corn 
which  has  grown  about  one -half 
inch.  The  material  should  be  placed 
in  40  per  cent  alcohol  for  a  few 
hours,  then  in  70  per  cent  for  the 
same  length  of  time,  and  then  in  95 
per  cent  until  ready  for  use.  Make 
a  series  of  longitudinal  sections, 
stain  with  hematoxylin,  mount,  and 
then  select  the  middle  or  median 
one  for  study  with  the  high  power. 
Note  these  points  (Fig.  395):  (a) 
Root-cap  beyond  the  growing  point. 
(h)  The  shape  of  the  end  of  the 
root  proper  and  the  shape  of  the 
cells  found  there,  (c)  The  group 
of  cells  in  the  middle  of  the  first  layers  beneath  the 
root-cap.  This  group  is  the  growing  point,  (d)  Study 
the  slight  differences  in  the  tissues  a  short  distance 
back  of  the  growing  point.  There  are  four  regions:  the 
plerome,  several  rows  of  cells  in  the  center;  the  endo- 
dermis,  composed  of  a  single  layer  on  each  side  ;  the 
periblem,  of  several  layers  outside  the  endodermis,  and 
the  dermatogen,  on  the  outer  edges.  Make  a  drawing  of 
the  section.  If  a  series  of  the  cross -sections  of  the  hypo- 
cotyl should  be  made  and  studied,  beginning  near  the 
growing  point  and  running  back  some  distance,  it  would 
be  found  that  these  four  tissues  become  more  distinctly 
marked.     The  central  cylinder  of  plerome  will  contain  the 


395.  Growing  point  of  root  of 
Indian  corn,  d,  d,  dermato- 
gen; p,  p,  periblem;  e,  e,  en- 
dodermis; p J, plerome;  i,. init- 
ial group  of  cells,  or  growing 
point  proper;  c,  root-cap. 


254  TISSUES 

ducts  and  vessels  ;  the  endodermis  remains  as  endodermis; 
periblem  becomes  the  cortex  of  parenchyma;  the  derma- 
togen  becomes  the  epidermis  of  the  root. 

411.  EPIDERMAL  TISSUE.— This  is  a  special  modification 
of  parenchyma,  comprising  the  thin  layers  on  the  exterior 
of  leaves  and  stems.  The  cells  are  often  tabular  or  plate- 
like in  form,  as  in  the  epidermis  of  leaves  (Fig.  115); 
and  their  outer  surface  bears  a  layer  of  cuticle,  a  protec- 
tive substance  which  is  insoluble  even  in  sulfuric  acid. 
They  do  not  bear  chlorophyll  and  often  contain  only  cell- 
sap,  with  a  little  protoplasm.  Their  walls  are  much  thick- 
ened in  some  cases,  as  in  Figs.  394  and  414.  Hairs  and 
hrisfles  are  considered  to  be  modified  epidermal  tissue. 

412.  COLLENCHYMATOUS  TISSUE.  — Tis- 
sue composed  of  cells  thickened    at  the 
angles,    not   much   elongated    and    not 
lapping  at  the  ends,  is  known  as  coUcn- 
chyma  (Fig.  396).     It  is  strengthening 
tissue.     Good    examples   are    found    in 
396.  CoUenchyma  in  wild  such   vlucs   as    pumpkiu,  cucumbcr  and 
jewel-weed  Of  touch-.ne-  gourd.      The    tissuc    is    slightly   elastic 
and  allows  of  some  stretching.     Cut  a 
few  thin  cross -sections  of  large  stems  of  jewel -weed,  and 
mount  in  water.     Study  with  high  power. 

413.  SOFT  BAST  OR  SIEVE  TISSUE.— In  the  higher  plants 
is  a  tissue  known  as  soft  bast  or  sieve  tissue  (this  also 
forms  part  of  the  bundle;  424).  It  is  composed  of  two 
types  of  cells  which  almost  always  accompany  each  other. 
These  are  sieve  tubes  and  companion  cells  (Fig.  397;. 
Both  are  elongated,  thin -walled  and  blunt  at  the  ends. 
The  sieve  tubes  are  so  called  because  of  the  sieve -like 
areas  which  they  bear  in  various  parts.  These  areas,  called 
sieve  plates,  are  commonl.y  at  the  ends  (as  partitions)  but 
may  be  in  the  lateral  walls.  Fig.  397.  They  serve  to 
connect    the    cell-cavities   with    each    other,   and    through 


PROSENCHYMATOllS     TISSUE 


25S 


them    the   protosplasra    strands  extend,  as  shown    m   the 
figure. 

414.  PROSENCHYMATOUS  TISSUE. —  Several  elongated 
and  strong  tissues,  which  greatly  strengthen  the  stems  in 
which  they  are  found,  are 
collectively  known  as  pros- 
enchyma.  The  cells  of 
these  tissues  become  much 
thickened  by  the  addition 
of  layers  to  the  inner  sur- 
face, and  finally  lose  their 
protoplasm.  They  may,  at 
times,  serve  as  store-rooms 
for  starch  and  other  nu- 
trients, and  take  an  im- 
portant part  in  the  trans- 
fer of  the  plant  juices. 
Some  writers  call  this 
group  of  tissues  scleren- 
chyma. 

415.  There  are  four 
main  varieties  of  tissues  {3||illl^l~^ 
which  may  be  included 
under  proseuchyma.  (1) 
Fibrous  tissue,  composed 
of  very  thick -walled  cells 
with  very  small  central 
3a vities.  F,  Fig.  401. 
They  are  very  long  and  tapering  at  the  ends,  which  lap. 
Sucli  tissue  is  found  in  man^^  plants  where  it  often 
wholly  or  in  part  surrounds  the  fibro-vascular  bundles. 
It  is  more  often  but  not  always  found  near  the  soft 
bast:  hence  the  cells  are  sometimes  called  hast  fibers  or 
iiiird  bast.  (2)  Wood  tissue,  or  wood  fibers.  This  is 
composed  of  cells   much   like  the   preceding   in    structure. 


3'J7.  Biist-tissue.  s,  s,  sieve  tubes;  c,  com- 
IJunion  cell ;  p,  shows  a  top  view  of  u 
sieve  phite,  with  a  fonipaiiion  cell,  c.  at 
the  side;  o,  shows  sieve  plates  in  the 
side  of  the  cell.  In  s,  s,  the  proto- 
plasm is  shrunken  from  the  walls  liy 
reagents. 


256 


TISSUES 


but  with  thinner  walls  and  the  central  cavity  not  so 
nearly  closed.  In  some  cases  such  fibers  have  transverse 
walls.  Wood  cells  constitute  a  large  part  of  the  wood  of 
some  plants  and  are  in  other  cases  found  scattered  only 
among  the  other  prosenchyma.  (3)  Tracheids.  Cells  of 
this  tissue  differ  from  ordinary  cells  in  being  supplied  with 
numerous  bordered  pits  or  other  characteristic  markings. 


398.    Longitudinal  tangentiiil  section  of  Scotch  pine  wood,  liighly  magnified. 
It  shows  tracheids  with  bordered  pits.     The  dark  cells  are  ends  of  medullary  rays. 

They  constitute  the  largest  part  of  the  wood  of  the  pines 
and  other  gymnosperms.  Fig.  398.  (4)  Vascular  tissue, 
composed  of  large  cells  which  become  confluent  end  to  end, 
forming  long  tubes  or  ducts.  TT',  Fig.  401.  From  the 
thickened  markings  which  these  cells  bear  they  are  named 
spiral,  annular,  pitted,  scalariform,  etc.  Fig.  389.  These 
vessels  are  often  of  considerable  length,  but  are  never  con- 
tinuous through  the  entire  plant.  Cut  a  grape-vine  stem 
2  or  3  feet  long.  Place  one  cut  end  in  a  glass  of  water  and 
with  the  other  end  in  the  mouth,  try  to  force  air  through 
the  stem.     If  not  successful,  shorten  the  stem  a  little. 


TISSUE     SYSTEMS  257 

416.  SCLERENCHYMATOUS  OR  SCLEROTIC  TISSUE.— 
Sclerenchyma  cells  are  hard,  not  elongated,  often  some- 
what spherical,  and  their  thickened  walls  are  provided 
with  simple  or  branching  canals.  The  cells  of  this  tissue 
are  illustrated  by  the  common  grit  cells  of  the  pear  and 
some  other  fruits.  They  are  also  found  in  the  coats  of 
many  seeds,  in  nut  shells,  in  the  pith  of  some  plants. 
Hold  a  large  gritty  part  of  a  pear  between  two  pieces  of 
smooth  elder  pith  or  cork  and  make  free-hand  sections. 
Mount  in  water.  Make  a  drawing  of  a  single  cell  showing 
thickness  of  wall,  size  of  central  cavity,  wall  markings. 
Note  the  general  shape  of  the  cells. 

417.  LATICIFEROUS  TISSUE.— That  tissue  found  in  many 
plants  which  contain  a  milky  liquid  is  called  laticiferous 
tissue.  There  is  no  fixed  type  for  the  vessels  which  carry 
this  fluid,  as  they  vary  greatly  in  different  plants,  being 
simple  in  the  asclepias  (milk  weed),  and  complex  in  the 
dandelion. 

418.  TISSUE  SYSTEMS.— The  parts  of  complex  plants 
may  be  conveniently  grouped  into  three  tissue  systems  : 
(1)  Fibro-vascular  tissue  system.  This  is  composed  of 
fibro-vascular  bundles.  The  fibrous  framework  of  roots, 
stems,  and  leaves  is  made  of  fibro-vascular  bundles. 
(Fibro-vascular  means  fibrous  or  long  and  slender,   and 

.having  long  openings  or  channels.)  Each  bundle  is 
composed  of  two  fundamental  parts:  phloem  and  xylem. 
The  bast  fibers  may  or  may  not  be  present.  Phloem  is 
another  name  for  the  soft  hast  or  sieve  tissue,  while  xylem 
is  the  name  of  the  lignified  or  woody  part  and  is  com- 
posed chiefly  of  the  ivood  cells,  tracheids,  and  ducts.  In 
stems  of  dicotjdedons  (exogens),  these  two  parts  of  the 
bundle  are  separated  by  cambium,  a  meristematic  layer  giv- 
ing rise  to  xylem  on  one  side  and  to  phloem  on  the  other. 
For  types  of  bundles,  see  next  chapter.  (2)  Fundamen- 
tal tissue  system.     This  is  composed  of  the  parenchyma- 


258  REVIEW    ON    TISSUES 

tous  tissue  already  described.  The  fibro- vascular  system 
may  be  said  to  be  imbedded  in  the  fundamental  tissue. 
(3)  Epidermal  tissue  system.  This  is  the  covering  of 
the  other  systems,  and  is  composed  of  epidermal  tissue, 
already  described.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
types  of  cells  and  tissues  as  defined  in  this  chapter  are 
not  all  that  may  be  found  in  plants.  There  are  many  inter- 
mediate forms,  e.  g.,  tracheids  and  ducts  blend  the  one  into 
the  other;  and  the  same  is  true  of  wood  cells  and  tracheids, 
419.   Summary  of  tissues  studied: 

1.  Parenchymatous  tissue. 

a.  meristematic. 
6.  permanent. 

2.  Epidermal  tissue. 

3.  Collenehymatous  tissue. 

4.  Soft  bast  or  phloem  (sieve  tissue). 

5.  Prosenchymatous  tissue. 

a.  Fibrous  tissue  or  bast  fibers. 
h.  Wood  tissue  or  wood  fibers. 

c.  Tracheids. 

d.  Vascular  tissue  or  ducts. 

6.  Sclerenchymatous  or  sclerotic  tissue. 

7.  Laticiferous  tissue. 

8.  Tissue  systems. 

Review.  — What  is  a  tissue?  How  may  two  tissues  differ?  What 
is  parenchymatous  tissue?  Name  three  places  where  this  is  found.. 
Distinguish  between  meristematic  and  permanent  tissue.  Name  two 
uses  of  parenchymatous  tissue.  Of  what  use  are  the  intercellular 
spaces  of  leaves?  Describe  the  parts  studied  in  the  section  of  root 
tip.  What  part  of  this  tip  will  become  vascular?  Describe  epidermal 
tissue.  Collenchyma.  Sieve  tissue.  Of  what  use  are  the  sieve  areas? 
What  are  the  chief  uses  of  prosenchyma?  Describe  fibrous  tissue, 
wood  cells  or  wood  fibers;  tracheids;  ducts.  What  does  your  ex- 
periment in  blowing  air  through  a  grapevine  stem  indicate?  De- 
scribe cells  of  sclerotic  tissue.  Laticiferous  tissue.  Name  three  tissue 
systems.  What  are  fibro-vascular  bundles?  What  two  classes  of 
tissue  are  found  in  each  bundle  ?  Of  what  is  phloem  composed  f 
Xylem. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 


STRUCTURE  OF  STEMS  AND  ROOTS 


420.  There  are  two  main  types  of  stem  structure  found 
among  flowering  plants,  which  have  their  differences 
based  upon  the  arrangement  of  the  flbro- vascular  bundles. 
These  types  are  endogenous  and  exogenous. 

421.  ENDOGENOUS  STEMS. — Plants  with  this  form  of 
stem  are  the  monocotyledons.  The  vascular  bundles  are 
irregularly  scattered  through  the  fundamental  tissue  of  the 
stem  (Fig.  399),  and  are  not  arranged  in  circles  about  a 
common  center.  The  bundles  are  not  parallel  with  each 
other  and  are  not  of  the  same  size  throughout  their  length. 
Fig.  400  shows  the  direction  often  taken  by  the  bundles 
in  the  stem.  On  the  exterior  there  is  either  an  epidermis 
or  a  false  rind.  The  only  trees  which  have  this  kind  of 
stem  are  natives  of  the  tropics  or  of  warm  countries.     The 

palm  is  one  of  them,  and 
these  stems  are  sometimes 
called  the  palm  type.  In 
our  own  climate  we  find 
many  examples,  such  as 
greenbrier,  Indian  corn, 
asparagus,  grasses,  or- 
chids, iris,  and  cat -tail. 
To  study  arrangement  of 
bundles  in  corn:  Cut  thin 
sections  of  a  small  corn 
stem  which  has  been  pre- 
served in  alcohol.  Stain  with  hematoxylin.  Examine 
with  the  low  power,  and  make  a  sketch  showing  the 
(259) 


390.  Cross-section  of  corn-stalk,  showing 
the  scattered  fibro-vascular  bundles. 
Slightly  enlarged. 


260 


STRUCTURE  OF  STEMS  AND  ROOTS 


arrangement  of  the  bundles.  The  sections,  if 
mounted  in  a  permanent  way,  as  in  balsam, 
may  be  kept  for  further  study  of  the  bun- 
dles.    Compare  with  Fig.  401. 

422.  EXOGENOUS  STEMS.— The  fibro- vas- 
cular bundles  in  exogenous  (or  dicotyledon- 
ous) stems  are  arranged  in  a  circle  around 
the  center,  which  is  usually  filled  with  pith. 
Outside  the  ring  of  bundles  is  a  cortex  of 
fundamental  tissue.  Around  this  is  either  a 
layer  of  cork  or  an  epidermis.  Layers  of 
parenchyma  cells,  called  medullary  rays,  are 
found  between  the  bundles  and  often  extend-  '^^^^J'lhf  course 
ing  from  the   central  pith  to    the  outer  cor-    l{^^il°'i^^^tJ. 

tex.    These      cotyledons. 

usually  are  prominent  in 
young  stems  of  woody 
plants  and  in  vines.  Fig. 
404.  All  trees  and 
nearly  all  other  woody 
plants  of  the  temperate 
regions,  as  well  as  many 
herbaceous  plants,  show 
this  plan  of  stem.  The 
medullary  rays  are  very 
prominent  in  oak  wood. 
These  rays  are  lignified 
in  the  xylem  part  of  the 
bundle  and  non-lignified 
in  the  phloem  part.  To 
study  arrangement  of 
bundles  in  exogens:  Pre- 
pare thin  cross -sections 
of  the  stems  of  meni- 
spermum      (moonseed), 


401.  Fibro-vasciilar  bundles  of  Indian  corn,  much 
magnified.  A,  annular  vessel;  a',  annular 
or  spiral  vessel;  XT',  thick- walled  vessels: 
W,  tracheids  or  woody  tissue;  F,  sheath  of 
fibrous  tissue  surrounding  the  bundle;  ft, 
fundamental  tissue  or  pith;  s,  sieve  tissue; 
p,  sieve  plate;  c,  companion  cell;  I,  inter- 
cellular space,  formed  by  tearing  down  of 
Adjacent  cells;  w',  wood  parenchyma. 


OTHER  STEMS — THREE  TYPES  OF  BUNDLES    261 

one  year  old.  Stain  with  hematoxylin.  Make  a  permanent 
mount.  Study  with  low  power,  and  make  a  sketch  show- 
ing the  shape  and  location  of  the  fibro- vascular  bundles. 
Fig.  402.  Save  the  mount  for  further  study.  If  meni- 
spermum  stems  are  not  easily  ob- 
tained, ivy  (Hedera  helix)  or  clem- 
atis may  be  substituted. 

423.  OTHER  STEMS.— Besides  the 
two  types  of  stems  studied  above, 
which  are  prevalent  among  pheno- 
gams,  there  are  other  structures  of 
stems  found  among  the  cryptogams. 
A  common  arrangement  of  the  bun- 
dles is  in  the  form  of  a  circle  some 
distance  from  the  center,  with  a  few 
other    bundles    within     the     circle. 

-^,,.,,   •       ,1  •      ,         1  ,.  402.  Arrangement  of  tissues  in 

Within  the  circle  also  are  sometimes     2year-oid  stem  of  moonseed. 
found  large  areas  of   fibrous  tissue.     l^jf^/J^^^^^i^:. 

Fig.   403.      There    are,   however,   wide        vascular    bundles    are    very 

prominent. 

variations    from    this    arrangement, 

but  this    mode    of    arrangement    is    often  called   the  fern 

type  of  stem. 

424.  THREE  TYPES  OF  BUNDLES.— It  has  already  been 
said  (418)  that  every  fibro-vascular  bundle  is  made  up  of 
two  parts:  (1)  phloem  or  soft  bast;  (2)  xylem  or  tvood. 
The  relative  position  of  these  two  strands  of  tissue  is  very 
important.  There  a-re  three  plans  of  arrangement,  on 
which  three  types  of  bundles  are  based.  These  plans 
are  collateral,  bi-collateral  and  concentric. 

425.  In  collateral  bundles,  the  phloem  and  xylem  are 
placed  side  by  side,  the  xylem  being  nearer  the  center 
of  the  stem  and  the  phloem  outside  or  nearer  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  stem.  We  find  this  plan  in  the  stems  of 
phenogams.  The  collateral  bundles  may  be  either  open  or 
closed.    Open  bundles  are  those  which  continue  to  increase 


262       STRUCTURE  OF  STEMS  AND  ROOTS 

in  size  during  life  by  the  presence  of  a  growing  layer  at 
the  line  of  union  of  the  phloem  and  xjlem.  This  layer 
of  growing  cells  is  called  cambium.  Dicotyledonous  stems 
have  open  collateral  bundles.  Fig.  402.  Closed  bundles 
are  those  which  cease  growing  very  early  and  have  no 
cambium  or  growing  layer.  They  are  called  closed,  per- 
haps from  the  fact  that  there  is  no  means  by  which  they 
may  become  larger.  Stems  of  monocotyledons  have 
bundles  of  the  closed  collateral  type.     Examine  with  high 


403.   Cross-section  of  root  of  brake  (Pteris  aquilina),  showing  12  concentric  fibro- 
vascular  bundles.     The  two  long  dark  strands  are  composed  of  fibrous  tissue. 

power  cross -sections  of  menispermum  stems  and  corn 
stems  (see  Figs.  401,  402,  404),  which  have  been  stained 
with  hematoxylin.  Study  the  tissues  found  in  a  single 
bundle  of  each,  with  the  aid  of  the  illustrations. 

426.  In  concentric  bundles,  the  xylem  is  centrally 
placed  in  the  bundle  and  the  phloem  is  all  around  it, 
as  in  club  mosses  and  ferns  (Fig.  403);  or  the  phloem  is 
in  the  center  of  the  bundle  and  the  xylem  surrounds  it, 
as  in  the  underground  stems  of  some  monocotyledons,  as 
asparagus.      Figs,  405,  406.      To  see  concentric   bundles:. 


SECONDARY     THICKENING     OF     STEMS  2G3 

Prepare  cross -sections  of  the  stem  of  pteris  or  aspidium. 

They  shoukl    be    cut  very   thin    and    stained  with   hema- 

'^~^,cc>  toxyliu.     Make  a  sketch  showing 

f        the  arrangement  of  bundles.   Bicol- 

(  V-     -^  lateral  bundles  differ  from  the  col- 

{^^  s  ^v>    lateral  in  having  additional  phloem 

M  ^^     on    the    inner   side    of   the    xvlem 

'^ ,'  I         strand;    well  marked  in  pumpkins 

'  i  d     and  squashes. 

T^\-  ;fc  427.  In   roots   the   phloem   and 

^  ,*  xylem   are  not  definitely  arranged 

^'  in     bundles,     but    in     alternating 

radial    strands    or     plates.      This 

f  plan  is  typical  in  young  roots  and 

rootlets,   but  is  more  or  less  ob- 

404.    Cross-section  ot    tibro-viis- 
cularUmdle  of  moonseed  (.see    sCUred  lU  oldcr  OUCS. 
Fig.  402).    f,  f,  crescent-shaped 

sheaths  of  hast  fibre;i).  phloem;  428.    SECONDARY  THICKENING  OF 

cp,  crushed  phloem  ;     c,   eam- 

biuinjd,  xylem  ducts:  «,  xylem    STEMS. —  DicotvIedoUOUS     (or    6X0- 
tracheids;    m,  medullary  rays 

of    fundamental   tissue;    from    geUOUs)    stcmS    witll  OpCU  Collateral 
c  to  /   (at  bottom),   xylem;    7,    "^  ' 

end  of  first  year's  growth;  2   buudlcs  may  Increasc  in  diameter 

end  of  second  year  s  growth  of  '' 

wood.  each  year.     If  they  are  perennial 

they  may  add  a  ring  of  growth  each  spring   (Fig.    407). 
These    rings    may    be  .^KKM~ 

counted  on  the  smooth         j^^^^^^m.- 
cross-cut  surface  of  a      J^^^^^^B^"  ^  ' 
tree,  and  the  exact  age    /^9H|pH|^: 
of  the  tree  usually  can    ^^n-r-r^S  ^  '    .     \. 
be  very  closel}'   deter-  --^^^  -. 
mined.     All  growth  in  '  ;i  . 

thickness    due    to    the 
formation  of  new  cells 
outside  of  the  primary       \ 
wood  is  called  second- 
ary thickening. 

.QQ         .  1  405.   Part  of  cross-sectiiMi  (f  rni.t  stock  of  aspar- 

4ZJ.     As      we       Iiave  agus,  showing  a  few  til.io-v^iMuhir  bundles. 


264       STRUCTURE  OF  STEMS  AND  ROOTS 

seen  (425),  there  is  a  cambium  or  growing  layer  in  every 
open  collateral  bundle  just  between  the  xylem  and  phloem. 
Each  spring  the  cells  of  this  layer  divide  many  times  and 
form  new  cells  both  inside  and  outside  the  cambium  ring. 
Those  formed  inside  become  thick  walled  and  are  xylem. 
Those  formed  to  the  outside  of  the  ring  are  gradually 
changed  into  phloem.  The  crowding  of  the  cells  within 
the    cambium    ring   causes   the   ring  itself  to  enlarge   its 


406.   Enlargement  of  a  single  concentric  bundle  from  Fig.  405. 

circumference  and  move  outward  by  this  growth.  To 
study  secondary  thicJiening :  Cut  thin  cross -sections  of 
basswood  stems  of  different  ages  (one  to  three  years  old). 
Stain  and  mount.  Examine  with  low  power  and  sketch 
the  arrangement  of  bundles  in  the  oldest  and  youngest. 
Note  the  effect  of  growth  on  the  medullary  rays.  Test 
them  with  iodine  for  starch.  Now  wdth  the  high  power 
study  the  peculiar  character  of  the  bast  tissue.  Note  the 
abundance  of  fibrous  tissue  found  all  through  it.  Draw 
a   single   bundle   from    the    stem    one   year  old,  carefully 


B  A  K  K  265 

showing  the  location  of  the  cambium  and  the  different 
tissues  found  in  the  xylem  and  phloem  strands  (Fig.  408). 
It  may  be  thought  best  to  precede  this  experiment  with  a 
similar  study  of  two-year-old  stem  of  moonseed,  ivy  or 
other  vines. 

430.  BARK.— In    most   woody   plants    that  part   of    the 
stem  which   is  outside   the  cambium  ring   is  called    bark. 


407.   White  pine  stem  5  years  old.     The  outermost  layer  is  bark. 

At  first  it  contains  the  epidermis  or  outer  layer  of  cells, 
the  phloem  and  the  cortex  lying  between  the  epidermis  and 
the  phloem.  The  gradual  growth  of  the  stem  causes  the 
outer  dead  layers  of  bark  to  crack  more  or  less  irregularly 
and  finally  to  split  off.  Examples  of  this  can  be  seen  on 
the  trunks  of  any  large  trees.  Before  the  tree  is  many 
years  old  the  cortical  cells  of  the  bark  become  much 
crushed  and  are  lost  to  view.  The  epidermis  is  shed 
rather  early  in  the  life  of  the  tree. 


266 


STRUCTURE  OF  STEMS  AND  ROOTS 


431.  Usually  very  early  iu  the  life  of  the  stem  a  corhj 
layer  of  bark  is  produced.  This  is  the  product  of  an  active 
layer  of  cells  called  phellogen.      This  layer  is  first  found 

at  those  places 
where  the  stomates 
or  breathing  pores 
were  located.  The 
epidermis  is  first 
crowded  off  at  these 
places,  and  the 
rough  corky  spots 
are  called  lenticels. 
Phellogen  is  very 
active  in  the  cork 
oak  of  Spain,  but 
we  find  it  in  nearly 
all  woody  plants. 
In  such  plants  as 
button  wood  (syca- 
more), in  which  the  bark  peels  off  in  thin,  flat  layers, 
the  phellogen  layer  is  nearly  uniformly  active  in  all 
parts,  while  in  many  other  cases  there  is  very  little  unifor- 
mity. In  wahoo  (burning  bush)  it  is  in  four  bands,  giving 
rise  to  four  corner  wings.  In  the  section  of  menispermum 
already  studied,  it  is  found  only  under  the  lenticel  spots 
where  the  stomates  have  been  located. 
Fig.  409  shows  structure  of  the  outer 
bark  as  found  in  the  whole  circum- 
ference of  the  three -year -old  stem 
of  red  currant.  To  study  phellogen 
and  corky  tissue  :  Cut  thin  cross - 
sections  of  red  currant  from 
stems  two  or  three  years  old  which  have  been  kept  in 
alcohol  at  least  several  hours.  The  sections  should  be 
stained.     With  the  highest  power  make  a  careful  study  of 


408.  Section  of  basswood  stem,  j  years  old. 
The  cone-shaped  growths  of  phloem  are  plainly  i 


Cross-section  of  red  cur- 
rant twig,  showing  bari. 
c,  corky  tissue;  p, phellogen; 
g,  parenchyma  or  cortex. 


STEUCTURE     OF     ROOTS  267 

the  phellogen  and  the  corky  tissue  outside  of  it.  Draw. 
The  relation  of  bark  to  woody  tissue  in  pine  is  shown  in 
Fig.  410.  Cork  tissue  may  be  studied  to  advantage  in 
the  skin  of  the  potato. 

432.  STRUCTURE  OF  ROOTS.— At  the  growing  point 
the  root  has  a  cap  (of  small  compact  cells)  which 
protects  the  delicate  tissues  from  injury  (Fig.  395). 
Such  a  protection  is  not  found  in  growing  points  (buds) 
of    stems.      In    their    internal    structure   roots  differ  from 


410.    White  pine  stem  in  radial  longitudinal  section. 

Traclieids  on  tlie  left  with  medullary  rays  crossing  them.     Next  to  the  wood 

is  the  phloem,  then  fundamental  tissue,  then  the  dark  hark. 


especially  when  very  young.  Young  roots  have 
the  radial  arrangement  of  phloem  and  xylem  (427).  The 
number  of  xylem  strands  radiating  from  the  center  differs 
with  the  plant.  In  roots  also  tljere  is  almost  uniforml\ 
present  a  true  endodermis.  This  layer  is  found  just 
within  the  cortex  and  is  composed  of  rather  thick- 
walled  cells.  However,  many  rhizomes  and  stems  have 
a  trne  endodermis.  To  sfiuh/  corn  roots:  From  the  roots 
of  Indian  corn  a  few  weeks  old  cut  thin  cross-sections; 
stain  and  mount.  With  the  aid  of  the  low  power  make 
a   sketch    showing    the    arrangement    of   the   strands    of 


268 


STRUCTURE  OF  STEMS  AND  ROOTS 


wood  and  bast,  and  also  the  amount  of  fundament al 
tissue.  Use  the  highest  power  and  draw  a  portion  includ- 
ing one  strand  of  wood  and  two  of  bast.  In  this  por- 
tion draw  the  tissues  from  the  center  out  beyond  the 
endodermis.  Sections  may  also  be  made  of  the  roots  of 
germinating  pumpkins  or  squashes. 

Review. — Name  two  types  of  stems  found  among  flowenug 
plants.  Describe  each  and  give  examples  to  illustrate  them.  Give 
the  plan  of  arrangement  of  bundles  in  fern  stems.  How  many  types 
of  bundles  are  there?  Upon  what  do  their  differences  depend? 
Describe  and  give  examples  of  collateral  bundles.  What  difference 
is  there  betwpen  open  and  closed  collateral  bundles?  Give  examples 
of  each.  .  Describe  and  give  examples  of  concentric  bundles.  Radial 
arrangement.  What  is  secondary  thickening  ?  What  plants  show  it  ? 
What  is  the  layer  called  which  forms  the  new  cells  in  a  bundle? 
When  is  this  layer  most  active?  Describe  the  work  of  this  layer. 
What  part  of  each  bundle  of  a  dicotyledon  is  found  in  the  bark? 
What  are  lenticels?  What  is  phellogen?  Describe  the  work  of  phel- 
logen  in  any  plant  you  have  studied.  Where  is  the  root  cap? 
What  is  its  use?  Describe  fully  the  structure  of  roots,  telling  how 
they  differ  from  stems. 

Note  to  Paragraph  422. —  In  woody  stems  tiie  compression  is 
such  that  the  student  is  usually  puzzled  to  understand  the  bundle 
structure.  The  subject  will  be  simplified  if  he  compares  (on  cross- 
section),  the  bundles  in  such  a  plant  as  the  cucumber  with  that 
part  of  the  vascular  ring  which  lies  between  any  two  medullary 
rays  in  one-year  old  stems  of  peach,  elm,  oak,  etc. 


All  material  and  apparatus  should  be  kept  under  cover  when  not  in 


CHAPTER   XXXV 


STRUCTURE   OF   LEAVES 


433.  Besides  the  framework  or  system  of  veins  found 
in  blades  of  all  leaves,  there  is  a  soft  tissue  (408)  called 
mesophyll  or  leaf-parenchyma,  and  an  epidermis  which 
covers  the  entire  outside  part. 

434.  MESOPHYLL.— The  mesophyll  is  not  all  alike  or 
homogeneous.  The  upper  layer  of  it  is  composed  of 
elongated  cells  placed  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the 
leaf.  These  are  called  palisade  cells.  The  chloropJiyll 
grains  are  most  abundant  in  them,  because  they  are  on  the 
side  of  the  leaf  most  directly  exposed  to  the  sunlight. 
Below  the  palisade  cells  is  the  spongy  parenchyma  com- 
posed of  cells  nior^  or  less  spherical  in  shape,  irregularly 
arranged,  and  provided  with  many  intercellular  air  cavi- 
ties. Fig.  411 ;  also  Fig.  115.  In  leaves  of  some  plants 
exposed  to  strong  light  there  may  be  more  than  one  layer 
of  palisade  cells,  as  in 
the  India-rubber  plant 
and  oleander.  Ivy  when 
grown  in  bright  light 
will  develop  two  such 
layers  of  cells,  but  in 
shaded  places  it  may  be 
found  as  in  Fig.  411. 
Such  plants  as  iris  and 
compass  plant,  which 
have  both  surfaces  of 
the  leaf  equally  exposed  to  sunlight,  usually  have  a  palisade 
layer  beneath  each  epidermis. 

(269) 


411.  Cross-section  of  ivy  leaf,  which  grew  in 
shade  and  has  only  one  layer  of  palisade 
cells,  w,  upper  epidermis;  p,  palisade  cells; 
c.  a  crystal ;  sp,  spongy  parenchyma  ;  i,  in- 
tercellular space  ;  ?,  lower  epidermis.  The 
plant  here  intended  is  the  tnie  or  English 
ivy,  Hedera  helix. 


270 


STBUOTCRE     OF     LEAVES 


435.  EPIDERMIS.— The  outer  or  epidermal  cells  of  leaves 
do  not  bear  chlorophyll,  but  are  usually  so  transparent  that 
the  green  mesophyll  can  be  seen  through  them.  They 
often  become  very  thick -walled,  and  are  in  most  plants 
devoid  of  all  protoplasm  except  a  thin  layer  lining  the 
walls,  the  cavities  being  filled  with  cell -sap.  This  sap  is 
sometimes  colored,  as  in  the  under  surface  of  begonia 
leaves.  It  is  not  common  to  find  more  than  one  layer  of 
epidermal  cells  on  each  surface  of  a  leaf.  The  epidermis 
serves  to  retain  moisture  in  the  leaf.  In  desert  plants 
the  epidermis  as  a  rule  is  very  thick  and  has  a  dense 
cuticle. 

436.  There  are  various  outgrowths  of  the  epidermis. 
Hairs  are  the  chief  of  these.     They  may  be  (1)  simple,  as 

on  primula, geranium, 
naegelia ;  (2)  once 
branched,  as  on  wall- 
flower ;  (3)  com- 
pound, as  on  verbas- 
,  .    ,    >aj|^^«B»i&jp^N.ife^l^K»    cum  or  mullein;    (4) 

^S-.  ,^--''flpE^^^^I^^pr^J^^aB|    disk-like,  as  on  shep- 
■r.'     '  "^>r^^^^yf^!^^   herdia(Fig.412);  (5) 

stellate,  or  star- 
shaped,  as  in  certain 
crucifers.  In  some 
cases  the  hairs  are 
glandular,  as  in  Pri- 
mula Sinensis  and 
certain  hairs  of  pump- 
kin flowers.  To  study 
epidermal  hairs :  For  this  study  use  the  leaves  of  the 
plants  mentioned  above  or  others  which  may  be  substi- 
tuted. Cross -sections  may  be  made  so  as  to  bring  hairs 
on  the  edge  of  the  sections.  Or  in  some  cases  the  hairs 
may  be  peeled  or  scraped  from  the  epidermis  and  placed 


412.   Disk-like  or  radial  hairs  of  shepherdi: 


STOMATES 


271 


in  water  on  a  slide.     Make  sketches  of  the  different  kinds 
of  hairs. 

437.  STOMATES. —  Stomates  or  breathing-pores  are 
small  openings  or  pores  in  the  epidermis 
of  leaves  and  soft  stems  to  allow  the 
passage  of  air  and  other  gases  and  vapors. 
They  are  placed  near  the  large  intercel- 
lular spaces  of  the  mesophyll.  Fig.  413  413.  stomate  of  ge- 
shows  the  usual  structure.  There  are  two  ranium  leaf, show 
guard  cells  at  the  mouth  of  each  stomate,      '""^    ''^''''^ 

which  may  in  most  cases  open 
or  close  the  passage  as  the  condi- 
tions of  the  atmosphere  may  re- 
quire. In  Fig.  414  is  shown  a 
case  in  which  there  are  compound 
guard  cells,  that  of  ivy.  On  the 
414.  stomate  of  ivy,  showing      niargius  of  ccrtaiu  leaves,    as    of 

compound  guard  cells.  ... 

fuchsia,  impatieus,  cabbage,    are 
modified   stomates  known  as  ivater- pores. 

438.  Stomates  are  very  numerous,  as  will  be  seen  from 
the  numbers  giving  the  pores  to  each  square  inch  of  leaf 
surface  : 

Lower  surface.        Upper  surface. 

Peony 13,790  None 

Holly 63,600 

Lilac 160,000 

Mistletoe 200  200 

Tradescantia 2,000  2,000 

Garden  Flag 11,572  11,572 

The  arrangement  of  stomates  01:  the  leaf  differs  with 
each  kind  of  plant.  Figs.  415  and  416  show  stomates  on 
two  plants,  and  also  the  outlines  of  contiguous  epidermal 
cells.     The  guard  cells  contain  chlorophyll. 

439.  FALL  OF  THE  LEAi<", — In  most  common  deciduous 
plants,  when  the  season's  work  for  the  leaf  is  ended,  the 
nutritious  matter  is  withdrawn  into  the  stem,  and  a  layer 


272  STRUCTUKE     OF     LEAVES 

of  corky  cells  is  completed  over  the  surface  of  the 
stem  where  the  leaf  is  attached.  The  leaf  soon  falls.  It 
often  falls  even  before  killed  by  frost.  Deciduous  leaves 
begin  to  show  the  surface  line  of  articulation  in  the  early 
growing  season.  This  articulation  may  be  observed  at 
any  time  during  the  summer.  The  area  of  the  twig  once 
covered  by  the  petioles  is  called  the  leaf-scar  after  the  leaf 
has  fallen.     Figs.  53,  83,  86  show  a  numl)er  of  leaf-scars. 


415.  Stomates  of  geranium  leaf.  416.  Grouped  stomates  on  a  begonia  leaf. 

Fig.  417  shows  the  leaf -scar  in  the  form  of  a  ring  sur- 
rounding the  bud,  for  in  the  plane  tree  the  bud  is  covered 
by  the  hollowed  end  of  the  petiole;  sumac  is  a  similar 
case.  Examine  with  a  hand-lens  leaf-scars  of  several 
woody  plants.  Note  the  number  of  bundle -scars  in  each 
leaf-scar.  Sections  may  be  cut  through  a  leaf-scar  and 
examined  with  the  microscope.  Note  the  character  of  cells 
which  cover  the  leaf- scar  surface.     Compare  204. 

Review. — Name  three  tissues  found  in  leaves.  On  the  board 
draw  a  sketch  showing  the  structure  of  a  leaf  as  seen  in  cross-section. 
What  cells  of  leaves  bear  protoplasm  and  chlorophyll?  Why  do 
some  leaves  have  palisade  cells  near  both  surfaces?  Describe 
epidermal  cells.  Why  are  their  walls  much  more  thickened  in 
some  plants  than  others?  What  is  the  purpose  of  epidermis?  What 
are  stomates?  Draw  on  the  board  a  section  through  a  stomate 
showing  epidermis  and  mesophyll.  What  is  the  work  of  guard  cells? 
Give  some  idea  of  number  of  stomates  in  various  plants.     Name  five 


KEVIEW  ON  STRUCTURE  OF  LEAVES 


273 


types  of   epidermal  hairs.      What  use  could  be    suggested  for  the 
dense  coat  of  hairs  on  leaves  of  shepherdia?    Fig.  412. 

Note. — To  study  leaf  tissues  :  A  number  of  leaves  can  be  com- 
pared by  making  free-hand  cross-sections  of  leaves  held  between 
two  pieces  of  pith  or  cork,  and  mounting  tiie  material  in  water. 
Study  such  leaves  as  ivy  (Hedera 
helix),  begonia,  cyeas,  geranium, 
and  corn.  Note  the  number  of 
layers  of  palisade  cells,  the  spongy 
parenchyma,  the  epidermal  lay- 
ers. Which  cells  bear  chlorophyll? 
Write  a  brief  description  of  the 
tissues  of  each  leaf  and  make  a 
drawing  of  the  geranium. 

To    study    stomates   in    cross - 
section  :     In  the  cross-sections  of 
leaves  of  geranium,  corn,  ivy,  lih^, 
or  spider-lily  prepared  for  the  above  experiment,  look  for  the  stomates 
and  make  a  careful  drawing  from  the  one  you  can  see  best. 

Study  of  stomates  in  surface  vieto  :  From  the  under  surface  of 
leaves  of  geranium  and  impatiens  peel  bits  of  epidermis  by  tearing 
the  leaf.  Mount  these  in  water  and  examine  under  low  power.  Are 
the  stomates  scattered  or  in  grcups?  With  aid  of  a  higher  power 
draw  a  few  stomates  showing  their  guard  cells  and  the  surrounding 
epidermal  cells.  Make  a  similar  study  and  sketch  of  the  epidermis 
torn  from  the  under  surface  of  a  Begonia  sangulnea  leaf. 

Breathing-pores  are  known  as  siomata,  singular  stoma;  also  as 
stomates,  singular  stomate. 


417.  Leaf-scar  of  the  plane  tree  or 
sycamore.  The  scar  surrounds 
the  bud,  which  was  covered  by 
the  hollow  base  of  the  petiole. 


Looking  for  light. 


PART  IV 
THE    KINDS    OF    PLANTS 

NUMBER  OF  PLANTS.— Above  125,000  distinct  kinds  or 
species  of  seed -bearing  plants  are  known  and  described. 
Probably  little  more  than  one -half  of  the  total  number  now 
existing  on  the  earth  are  known.  Even  in  the  older  coun- 
tries and  regions,  seed -bearing  plants  heretofore  unknown 
to  science  are  discovered  now  and  then.  Outlying  regions 
are  relatively  little  known  botanically.  The  larger  part 
of  Africa,  South  America,  Central  America,  China,  Cen- 
tral Asia,  and  the  tropical  islands  are  only  imperfectly 
explored  for  plants.  Crjptogamous  plants  are  far  more 
numerous  in  kinds  than  seed- plants,  and  many  kinds — as, 
for  example,  various  bacteria — are  almost  infinite  in 
numbers  of  individuals.  In  the  lower  ranges  of  cryptog- 
amous  plants,  as  in  fungi  and  bacteria,  many  new  kinds 
are  constantly  being  described  even  in  countries  in  which 
they  have  been  most  carefully  studied. 

SPECIES.— Each  kind  of  plant  is  called  a  species. 
There  is  no  absolute  mark  or  characteristic  of  a  species. 
Between  many  kinds  there  are  intermediate  forms,  and 
some  kinds  vary  immensely  under  different  conditions. 
What  one  botanist  considers  as  a  distinct  species,  another 
botanist  may  regard  as  only  a  variety  or  form  of  another 
species.  No  two  botanists  agree  as  to  the  number  of 
species  in  any  region.  Species  are  not  things  in  them- 
selves. In  practice,  any  kind  of  plant  which  is  distinct 
enough  to  be  recognized  by  a  description,  and  which  is 
fairly  constant  over  a  considerable  territory,  is  called  a 
(275) 


276  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

species.  We  make  species  merely  to  enable  us  to  talk 
and  to  write  about  plants  :  we  must  have  names  to  call 
them  by.  The  different  kinds  of  plants  are  the  results 
of  evolution.  Probably  none  of  them  were  created  in  the 
beginning  as  we  now  find  them. 

NAMES  OF  SPECIES.— For  one  hundred  and  fifty  years 
(since  Linn»us  published  his  "Species  Plantarum "  in 
1753),  species  have  been  known  by  two  names,  the  generic 
and  the  specific.  The  generic  name  is  the  name  of  the 
genus  or  group  to  which  the  plant  belongs:  it  corresponds 
to  a  surname.  The  specific  name  belongs  only  to  the 
particular  species  or  kind  :  it  corresponds  to  a  given  or 
Christian  name.  Both  names  are  necessary,  however,  to 
designate  the  species.  Thus  Querctis  is  the  generic  name 
of  all  the  oaks.  Quercus  alba  is  one  of  the  oaks  (the 
white  oak),  Q.  virens  (the  live  oak)  another.  All  maples 
belong  to  the  genus  Acer,  and  all  elders  to  Satnbucus. 
The  same  specific  name  may  be  used  in  any  genus,  as  the 
same  Christian  name  may  be  used  in  any  family.  Thus, 
there  is  a  Quercus  nigra,  Sambncus  nigra,  Acer  nigrum, 
"niger"  meaning  black. 

By  common  consent,  the  oldest  proper  name  of  any 
species  must  stand.  If  a  species  happens  to  have  been 
named  and  described  twice,  for  example,  the  first  name,  if 
in  the  proper  genus,  must  hold;  the  later  name  becomes  a 
synonym.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  same  specific 
name  has  been  given  to  different  plants  of  the  same  genus. 
Of  course  this  name  can  be  allowed  to  stand  for  only  one 
species,  and  the  other  species  must  receive  another  name. 
In  order  to  avoid  confusion  of  this  and  other  kinds,  it  is 
customary  to  write  the  author's  name  with  the  species- 
name  which  he  makes.  Thus,  if  Gray  describes  a  new 
Anemone,  his  name  is  written  after  the  plant  name:  Ane- 
mone cylindrica,  Gray.  The  author's  name  thus  becomes 
an  index  to  the  history  of  the  species -name. 


USE  OF  KNOWING  PLANT  NAMES        277 

Plant -names  are  thrown  into  the  forms  of  the  Latin 
hmguage.  When  plants  first  were  studied  seriously, 
knowledge  was  preserved  in  Latin,  and  Latin  names  were 
used  for  plants.  The  Latin  form  is  now  a  part  of  the 
technical  system  of  plant  and  animal  nomenclature,  and  is 
accepted  in  all  countries;  and  the  Latin  language  is  as 
good  as  any  other.  As  in  the  Latin  language,  all  plant- 
names  have  gender,  and  the  termination  of  the  word  is 
usually  different  in  each  gender.  The  species -name  must 
agree  with  the  genus -name  in  gender.  Acer  is  neuter:  so 
is  A.  ruhrum  and  A.  nigrum.  Quercus  and  Sa^bucus  are 
feminine:  so  are  Q.  nigra  and  8.  nigra.  Masculine,  femi- 
nine, and  neuter  endings  are  seen  in  Buhus  sativus,  Pasti- 
naca  sativa,  Pisum  sativum.     "Sativus"  means  cultivated. 

The  name  of  a  species  not  only  identifies  the  species,  but 
classifies  it.  Thus,  if  a  plant  is  named  in  the  genus  Acer, 
it  belongs  to  the  maples  ;  if  it  is  named  in  Fragaria,  it 
belongs  to  the  strawberries;  if  it  is  named  in  Pyrus,  it  is 
allied  to  apples  and  pears;  if  it  is  HeliantJius,  it  is  one  of 
the  sunflowers. 

USE  OF  KNOWING  PLANT- NAMES.— The  name  is  an 
introduction  to  the  plant,  as  it  is  to  a  person.  It  is  an 
index  to  its  history  and  literature.  It  enables  us  to  think 
and  to  speak  about  the  plant  with  directness  and  pre- 
cision. It  brings  us  nearer  to  the  plant  and  increases  our 
interest  in  it. 

The  name  is  a  means,  not  an  end.  Merely  to  know  the 
name  is  of  little  use  or  satisfaction.  Knowing  the  name 
should  be  only  one  step  in  knowing  the  plant.  Of  late 
years,  the  determining  of  the  names  of  plants  has  been 
discouraged  as  a  school -exercise.  This  is  because  all  in- 
quiry stopped  when  the  name  was  secured.  A  name  was  a 
stone  wall  when  it  should  have  been  a  gate. 

HOW  TO  FIND  OUT  THE   NAMES  OF  PLANTS.— There    can 

be  no  short -cut  to  the  names  of  plants,  for  names  cannot 


278  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

be  known  accurately  until  the  plant  is  known.  The  name 
and  the  plant  should  be  indissolubly  associated  in  the 
mind.  Study  first  the  plant.  If  one  does  not  know  the 
plant  there  is  no  occasion  for  knowing  its  name. 

Learn  first  to  classify  plants:  names  will  follow.  Look 
for  resemblances,  and  group  the  plants  around  some  well- 
known  kind.  Look  for  sunflower- like,  lily-like,  rose-like, 
mint-like,  mustai'd-like,  pea-like,  carrot-like  plants.  These 
great  groups  are  families.  The  families  of  plants  are  bet- 
ter recognized  by  studying  a  few  representative  plants  than 
by  memoiizing  technical  descriptions.  Go  to  the  botany 
and  use  the  keys  in  these  families,  in  order  to  run  the 
plant  down  to  its  genus  and  species.  If  the  family  is  not 
recognized,  use  the  key  to  find  the  family.  Use  the  keys 
at  first:  graduall}^  discard  them.  When  one  looks  for 
relationships,  the  vegetable  kingdom  comes  to  have  con- 
tinuity and  meaning.  Merel}^  to  know  names  of  plants 
here  and  there  is  of  little  use. 

It  is  unwise  for  the  beginner  to  try  first  to  find  the  name 
of  any  plant.  Let  him  first  examine  familiar  plants  or  those 
which  seem  to  be  related  to  other  plants  which  he  knows. 
Let  him  get  in  mind  the  bold  characteristics  of  the  families 
which  are  most  dominant  in  his  locality.  Names  are  secon- 
dary and  incidental.  After  a  time,  in  case  of  each  new 
plant,  he  should  be  able  to  give  a  shrewd  guess  as  to  its 
family;   then  he  may  go  to  the  book  to  verify  the  guess. 

In  the  following  flora,  twenty-five  well-marked  families 
are  chosen  for  study.  Some  of  them  are  not  the  most 
characteristic  of  the  American  vegetation,  but  they  are 
such  as  afford  easily  accessible  species,  either  in  the  wild 
or  in  cultivation,  and  which  are  not  too  difficult  for  the 
beginner.  The  pupil  should  begin  with  plants  of  tvhich  he 
knows  the  common  names  or  ivith  tvhich  he  is  familiar. 
Several  plants  should  be  studied  in  each  family,  in  order 
to  enable    him  to  grasp   the  characteristics  of   the  family 


MAKING    A    COLLECTION  279 

and  thereby  to  lead  luiu  to  compare  plant -groups  and  to 
clarify  his  perception  and  widen  his  horizon.  When 
these  families,  or  the  larger  part  of  them,  are  understood, 
if  the  pupil  desire  further  knowledge  of  species,  he  may  go 
to  the  regular  manuals  in  which  species  are  grouped  or 
classified  according  to  their  natural  affinities.  It  is  well  to 
study  more  than  one  plant  in  a  genus  whenever  possible, 
for  then  close  comparisons  can  be  made. 

MAKING  A  COLLECTION.— The  making  of  a  collection  of 
plants  focuses  one's  attention,  defines  one's  ideas,  and 
affords  material  for  study  at  any  season.  The  collecting 
and  preserving  of  plants  should  be  encouraged.  Not  until 
one  searches  for  himself,  and  collects  with  his  own  hands, 
can  he  know  plants.  The  collection  should  not  be  an  end, 
however.  It  should  be  only  a  means  of  knowing  plants 
as  they  live  and  grow.  Too  often  the  pupil  thinks  it 
sufficient  merely  to  have  made  a  collection,  but  the  col- 
lection of  itself  is  scarcely  worth  the  while. 

Plants  are  preserved  by  drying  them  under  pressure. 
The  collection,  when  properly  arranged  and  labelled,  is  an 
herbarium.  Each  species  should  be  represented  by  suffi- 
cient specimens  to  display  the  stems,  foliage,  flowers, 
fruits.  If  the  plant  is  an  herb,  its  root  should  be  shown. 
There  should  be  several  or  many  specimens  of  each 
species  to  show  the  different  forms  which  it  assumes.  It 
is  less  important  to  have  an  herbarium  of  many  species 
than  to  have  one  showing  the  life -phases  of  a  few  species. 
First  make  specimens  of  the  common  species:  later  one 
may  include  the  rare  ones  if  he  choose,  although  an  her- 
barium which  selects  plants  merely  because  they  are  rare 
is  of  little  account  except  as  a  collection  of  curiosities. 
The  commonest  plants  are  usually  the  least  represented 
in  herbaria. 

Dry  the  plants  between  blotters  which  are  12  inches 
wide    and    18    inches    long.       These    blotters    are    called 


280  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

"  driers."  The}'  may  be  purchased  of  dealers  in  botanical 
supplies,  or  thej^  can  be  cut  from  felt  "carpet  paper."  It 
is  well  to  place  the  specimen  in  a  folded  sheet  of  news- 
paper, and  then  lay  the  newspaper  between  the  driers.  If 
the  specimens  are  large  or  succulent,  three  or  four  driers 
should  be  laid  between  them.  The  sheets  may  be  piled 
one  above  another,  until  the  pile  becomes  so  high  (12-18 
in.)  that  it  tends  to  tip  over.  On  the  top  place  a  board 
of  the  dimensions  of  the  drier,  and  apply  twenty  to 
thirty  pounds  of  stones  or  other  weight.  Change  the  driers 
— but  not  the  newspapers — once  a  day  at  first,  laying  the 
driers  in  the  sun  for  a  time.  In  a  dry,  warm  place,  most 
plants  will  dry  in  a  week  or  ten  days.  When  thoroughly 
dried,  they  retain  no  soft,  sappy,  fresh -green  areas,  and 
they  usually  break  if  bent  sharply.  They  will  be  per- 
fectly flat. 

The  specimen  may  now  be  secured  to  strong  white 
paper,  known  as  "mounting  paper."  The  regulation  size 
of  the  sheets  is  11/2x16%  inches.  It  is  the  quality  of 
heaviest  ledger  paper.  By  the  ream,  it  can  be  bought 
for  one  cent  or  less  a  sheet.  The  specimen  should  be  large 
enough  nearly  or  quite  to  cover  the  sheet,  unless  the 
entire  plant  is  smaller  than  this.  It  may  be  glued  down 
tight,  as  one  pastes  pictures  in  a  scrap-book,  or  it  may 
be  held  in  place  by  strips  of  gummed  paper.  The 
former  is  the  better  way,  because  the  plants  are  not  so 
easily  broken.  Only  one  species  should  go  on  a  sheet. 
In  one  corner,  glue  the  label.  This  label  should  give  the 
place  and  date  of  collecting,  name  of  collector,  and  any 
information  as  to  height,  color,  nature  of  soil,  and  the 
like.  Sooner  or  later,  the  label  should  contain  the  name 
of  the  plant;  but  the  name  need  not  be  determined  until 
after  the  plant  is  mounted. 

The  sheets  of  one  genus  are  laid  together  in  a  folded 
sheet  of  strong  straw-colored  paper.     This  folded  sheet  is 


EXPLANATION     OF     THE     FLORA  281 

the  "genus  cover."  Its  size  when  folded  is  ll%xl6% 
inches.  On  the  lower  left-hand  corner  the  name  of  the 
genus  is  written.  If  one  has  many  sheets  in  one  genus 
— say  more  than  20 — it  may  be  necessary  to  have  more 
than  one  cover  for  them.  The  covers  are  laid  in  cup- 
boards flatwise,  one  on  the  other,  and  the  sheets  then 
retain  their  shape  and  are  always  ready  for  use. 

EXPLANATION  OF  THE  FLORA.—  The  following  flora  con- 
tains 025  species  of  plants  in  294  genera  and  51  families. 
These  species  are  selected  from  common  and  representative 
plants,  in  the  hope  that  50  to  100  of  them  may  be  secured 
by  any  pupil.  The  pupil  should  collect  his  own  specimens 
as  far  as  possible,  and  he  should  press  and  preserve  them 
after  he  has  studied  the  structure.  Familiarity  with  100 
plants  will  give  the  pupil  a  good  grasp  of  plant  forms, 
provided  he  does  not  stop  with  merely  acquiring  the  names 
and  pressing  the  specimens.  He  should  know  how  the 
plants  look,  where  they  grow,  how  they  associate  with 
other  plants,  how  long  they  live,  and  the  like. 

Avoid  the  use  of  keys  as  much  as  possible:  learn  to 
see  the  plant  as  a  whole:  go  directly  to  the  family,  if 
possible.  But  it  may  be  necessary  to  use  keys  at  first. 
In  this  book  coordinate  parts  of  the  key  are  marked  by 
the  same  letter:  e.g.,  f,  ff,  fff,  are  three  coordinate 
entries.  Coordinate  entries  are  also  introduced  by  the 
same  catch-word,  as  "flowers,"  "leaves,"  "fruit."  Using 
a  key  is  a  process  of  elimination.  First  try  the  plant  in 
A;  if  it  does  not  belong  there,  go  to  aa.  Then  repeat 
the  search  in  b,  bb,  etc.,  until  the  family  is  found. 

Synonyms  are  placed  in  parenthesis  itn mediately  fol- 
lowing the  accepted  name.  Thus  "Impatiens  biflora, 
Walt.  (7. /»ii'fl,  Nutt.)"  means  that  the  accepted  name  is 
Walter's  I.  biflora,  but  that  the  plant  is  also  known  by 
Nuttall's  name,  I.  fulva. 

Proper  pronunciation  is  suggested  by  the  accent,  which 


282  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

indicates  both  the  emphatic  syllable  and  the  length  of  the 
vowel.  The  grave  accent  (^)  indicates  a  long  vowel;  the 
acute  (/ ) ,  a  short  vowel.  Terminal  vowels  are  pro- 
nounced in  Latin  words.  The  word  officinale  is  pronounced 
officin-dy-ly;  aiirea  with  cm  as  in  Laura;  Virginiana  with 
the  a  as  in  hay;  alba,  with  a  as  in  had;  acutiloba  with  i 
as  in  hill;  minor  with  i  as  in  mine;  halimifblia  with  o  as 
in  hole;  Japonica  with  o  as  in  coti;  rumex  with  u  as  in 
tune;  fiinkia  with  u  as  in  run. 

Key  to  the  families  as  represented  in  the  following  pages 

A.  CRYPTOGAMS:  no  true  flowers  or  seeds:  propagating  by  means 

of  spores Filice.s,  p.  290 

AA.   PHENOCtAMS:  bearing  flowers  and  seeds. 

B.  Gysinosperms:  seeds  naked  (not  enclosed  in  ovaries),  borne 
in  cones  or  berries:  no  conspicuous  flowers:  Ivs.  needle- 
shaped  or  scale  like:  plants  usually  evergreen Coniferce,  p.  292 

BB.  Angiosperms:  seeds  borne  in  ovaries:    flowers  usually  showy: 
leaves  very  various,  mostly  deciduous. 
c.  Monocotyledons:    cotyledon    one:    leaves    mostly  parallel- 
veined,  not   falling  with   distinct    articulation:    stem 
with   scattered    flbro -vascular  bundles   (endogenous) 
and  no  separable  bark:  fls.  mostly  3-merous. 
D.   Flowers  without  true  perianth,  except  sometimes  small 
scales,  or  bracts,  or  bristles,  but  encloi^ed  by  green 
alternate   glumes,  or  chaffy  bracts:  arranged  in 
spikes  or  spikelets:  grass-like  plants. 
E.  Glumes  in  pairs,  of  2  sorts  (glumes  andpalets) :  culms 
round,  hollow:  leaf-sheaths  usually  split  on  one 

side  opposite  blade    

Gramineoi,  or  Grass  Family,  not  treated  here. 

EE.  Glume  or  scale  single,  with  flower  in  axil:    perianth 

none  or  replaced    by  bristles:    culm  triangular, 

solid,  sheath  entire  or  closed 

Cyperace(e,  or  Sedge  Family,  not  treated  here. 
(For  grass-like  plants  having  flowers  with  6  similar,  green 
or  chaffy  bracts  [glumaceous  segments],  culms  solid. 
See  Jnncacew,  or  Rush  Family,  not  included  here.) 
DD.  Flowers  without  glumes,  borne  on  spadix,  small,  incon- 
spicuous, usually  attended  by  spathe Araeew,  p.  294 

DDD.  Flowers  not  on  spadices,  mostly  conspicuous. 
E.  Perianth  free  from  ovary. 


KEY     TO     THE     FAMILIES  283 

F.  The  periiinth  with  all  parts  similiarly  colored. 
G.  Parts   of  perianth  6,   similar,  green  or  chaffy 
(bract-like)  or  glume-like  (glumaceous  seg- 
ments)   Juncacem. 

GG.  Parts  of  perianth    6,  regular,  colored 

Lillacece,  p.  296 
FF.  The  perianth  with  parts  differently  colored. 

G.  Leaves  verticillate :  stigmas  3 

Trillium  in  Liliacece,  p.  300 

GG    Leaves  alternate:  stigma  1 Connnelinacea;,  p.  302 

EE.  Perianth-tube    adherent  to  ovary  wholly  or  partly: 
flowers  perfect. 

F.  Anthers  3 Iridacece,  p.  305 

FF.  Anthers  C Amaryliidacece,  p.  303 

FFP.  Anthers  1  or  2,  united  with  pistil,  gynandrous. .. 

Orchiducece,  p.  307 
OC.  Dicotyledons:  cotyledons  2  or  more:  leaves  mostly  netted- 
veined,  usually  falling  with  a  distinct  joint  or  articula- 
tion: stem  with  concentric  layers  of  wood  when  more 
than  one  year  old  (exogenous),  and  a  distinct  separable 
bark:  flowers  mostly  5-merous  or  4-merous  (comprising 
the  remainder  of  this  key). 
D.  Choripetalse:    petals  distinct  or  wanting  (i    e.,  flowers 
polypetalous,    apetalous    or    naked,    in    distinction 
from  gamopetalous,  dd,  p.  287). 
le.  Flowers    characteristically   apetalous;   mostly    small 
and  often  greenish,  inconspicuous. 
F.  Plants  woody. 

G.  The   flDwers   monoecious   or  dioecious,  one   or 
both  sorts  in  catkins. 
H.  Fertile  flowers  in  short  catkins  or  heads; 
calyx  regular  in  the  pistillate  flower,  be- 
coming fleshy  or  juicy  in  the  fruit  (juice 

milky)  Urticacew,  p.  313 

HH.  Fertile  flowers  1-3  in  a  cup-like  involucre : 

or  2  or  3  at  each  scale  of  the  pistillate 

■  catkin:    fruit   dry,   often  winged,  or  a 

:  l-seeded  nut:    sterile  fls.   in  elongated 

catkins Cupulifeui',  p.  310 

«a.  The  flowers  not  in  catkins. 

H.  Calyx-tube  adherent  to  ovary:  climbing 

Arisiolochiacea',  p.  316 
HH.  Calyx-tube  hypogynous. 
I.  Leaves  opposite. 

J    Fruit  a  double  samara,  2-winged 

Sapindacete,  p.  343 


284  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 


JJ.  Fruit  a  single-winged   samara   or    1- 

seeded  drupe:   stamens  2 

Oleacew,  p.  388 
JJJ.  Fruit  not  winged :  3-seeded  :  stamens  4 

Euphorhiacece,  p.  319 
II.  Leaves  alternate. 

J.  Styles  or  stigmas  2  or  2-cleft:  stamens 
equal  the  calj-x-lobes  and  opposite 

to  tliem Urticacew.  p.  313 

JJ.  Styles  or  stigmas  3,  each  2-cleft:  pod 
3-celIed  and  3-seeded:  flowers  3- 
parted:    fruit  a  dry  capsule:   sta- 
mens 8  to  many ..  .Eiiphorbiucece,  p.  319 
S'F.  Plants  herbaceous:  fls.  not  in  catkins  or  aments. 

G.  Ovary  inferior,  6-celled:  stamens  6  or  12 

Aristolochiacece,  p.  310 
GG.  Ovary  superior,  1 -celled. 

H.  Stamens  indefinite Hanunciilacece,  p.  323 

HH.  Stamens  few  (4-12). 

I.  Styles  2-3:   stipules   sheathing   stem   at 

nodes  of  the  alternate  leaves 

Poljjgonaceo',  p.  317 
II.  Style    single  :    stipules    not     sheathing 

stem Urficacece,  p.  313 

GGG.  Ovary  superior,  3-celled Euphorhiaceif,  p.  319 

Flowers    characteristically    polypetalous,    generally 

showy. 
F.   Plants  woody. 

G.  The  stamens  numerous  (more  than  10). 
H.  Leaves  alternate. 

I.  Ovary  1,  simple  or  compound,  or  ovaries 
numerous:  fruit  a  drupe  or  fleshy: 
stamens    distinct,    inserted    on    the 

cup-shaped  receptacle Rosacew,  p.  353 

II.  Ovaries    many    or    numerous:    stamens 

many,  mouodelphous Malvacece,  p.  340 

H.  Leaves  opposite:   ovary   single,  2-5-celled: 

fruit  a  dry  capsule Sarifragacece,  p.  301 

GG.  The  stamens  10,  or  less  than  10. 

H.  Stamens  2  (rarely  or  accidentally  3  or  4): 
fruit   a   drupe,   or   2-celled   berry  or  2- 

celled  pod Oleacece,  p.  388 

IIH.  Stamens   5,   alternate   with   petals:  fruit   a 

berry Saxifragacew,  p.  361 


KEY    TO     THE     FAMILIES  285 

HHH.  Stamens  5  or  10  united  at  base,  some 
sterile  :  leaves  simple  :  fruit  5-lobed, 
carpels    separating    from    central    axis 

when  ripe GeraniacecK,  p.  341 

HHIIH.  Stamens  5-10:  leaves  compound:  fruit  a 
leathery  1-3-valved  pod  and  liower 
irregular:   or,   fruit  a  3-celled  inflated 

(bladdery)  pod  and  flowers  regular 

Sapindaceae,  p.  343 
HHHHH.  Stamens  usually  10,  monadelphous,  diadel- 

phous,  or  distinct :  fruit  a  legume 

Legnniinosce,  p.  347 
FF.  Plants  herbaceous. 

G,  The  stamens  10  or  more. 

H.  Ovary  1,  simple:  fruit  a  1-2-seeded  berry.. 

Berberidaceoe,  p.  328 
HH.  Ovaries  several,  simple. 

I.  Stamens  indefinite,  hypogynous 

Hanunculacea,  p.  323 
II.  Stamens  indefinite,  inserted  on  cup-like 

receptacle Bosaeexe,  p.  353 

HHH.  Ovary  compound. 

I.  Water  plants:  leaves  flat  and  floating,  or 

heart-shaped  and  erect 

Nymph(eace(v,  p.  329 
II.  Land  plants. 

J.  Ovary  compound  and  1-celled. 

K.  With     central      placentae,     many- 
ovuled:  plants  juicy  (watery). 

PortuJacacecB,  p.  339 
KK.  With  2  or  more  parietal  placentae: 

colored  or  milky  juice 

Papaveracece,  p.  330 
KKK.  With  3  or  more  parietal  placentae: 
leaves     opposite:     juice     not 
milky:  flowers  yellow,  cymose. 

HypericaceiK,  p.  338 
jj.  Ovary  compound,  several-celled:  sta- 
mens monadelphous..  .ilfaZfrtcecp,  p.  340 
GG.  The  stamens  10  or  less  in  number. 

H.  Ovary  single,  1-celled,  simple  or  compound. 
I.  Corolla  regular  or  nearly  so. 
J.  Sepals  and  petals  4-5  each. 
K.  Leaves  alternate. 

L.  Stigma  1 Leguniinosiv ,  p.  347 

LL.  Stigmas  4 Saxifragacece,  p.  361 


286  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 


KK.  Leaves  opposite,  punctate:  flowers 

yellow Hypericace(e,  p.  338 

KKK.  Leaves     opposite     not     punctate: 

flowers  pink,  red,  white 

Caryopliyllacew,  p.  320 

J  J.  Sepals  2:  petals  4-5 Portulacacece,  p.  339 

JJJ.  Sepals  6:  stamens  Lj-pogynous,  oppo- 
site petals Berheridacew ,  p.  328 

II.  Corolla  irregular. 

J.  Fruit  a  legume Leguminosce,  p.  347 

j.T.    H  ruit  a  capsule. 

K.  Petals  5:  stamens  5:  pod  1-celled, 

3-valved Violacece,  p.  337 

KK.  Petals  4:  stamens  6,  diadelphous: 
fruit  2-valved  (globular,  1- 
seeded,  indehiscent  in  Fuma- 

ria) Fiimariacece,  p.  331 

HH.  Ovary  2-5  celled:  fruit  dry. 

I.   Fruit  of  2  dry  seed-like  carpels:  flowers 
small,  umbelled  or  in  heads :  stamens 

5 VmbelUferce,  p.  366 

II.  Fruit  a  2-celled  pod,  silique  or  silicle,  or 

sometimes  loment;  or  indehiscent  and 

nut-like:  flowers  not  truly  umbelled, 

but  solitary  or  in  racemes. 

J.   Stamens  6:  sepals  4:  petals  (0  or)  4.. 

Cruciferce,  p.  333 

jj.  Stamens    4-8,    distinct    or    nionadej- 

phous:  fls.  very  irregular:  sepals  5, 

unequal  and  some  of  them  colored : 

petals  3  (or  5,  with  2  scale-like): 

pods  2-seeded Polygnlacece,  p.  346 

III.  Fruit  (or  ovary)  a  4-celled  capsule:  sta- 
mens 2,  4  or  8:  petals  0,  2  or  4 

Onagracece,  p.  364 
iiii.  Fruit  (or  ovary)  a 5-eelled  capsule. 

J.  Leaves  simple,  evergreen  :  seeds  min- 
ute, innumerable:  plants  white, 
or  yellowish    parasitic   or   sapro- 

pliytic  about  the  roots  of  trees 

Ericaceae,  p.  391 
JJ.  Leaves  simple,  more  or  less  lobed  or 
divided,  capsule  5-10  seeded;  or 
stem  succulent  and  translucent: 
pod  walls  elastic,  each  cell  sev- 
eral-seeded   Geraniacece,  p.  341 


KEY     TO     THE     FAMILIES  287 

■Tjj.  Leaves  conipouud,  palmately  S-folio- 

late Oxalis  in  Geraniacea,  p.  342 

mil.  Fruit  of  2  follicles,  seeds  hairy  tufted: 

juice  milky Asclepiadacect',  p.  386 

DD.  Gamopetal^:  corolla  in  oiie  piece,  at  least  toward  the 
base   (as  if  the  petals  were  more  or  less  united): 
calyx  and  corolla  both  present. 
E.  Stamens  more  numerous  than  corolla-lobes. 

F    Ovary     1-celled,    1    parietal    placenta:     fruit    a 

legume Legiiviinosce,  p.  M7 

FF.  Ovary  3,  several-celled. 

G.  The  stamens  nearly  or  quite  free  from  corolla: 

style  1 Uricace'e,  p.  391 

GG.  The  stamens  free  from  corolla:  style.s  5 

Oxalis  in  Gernaiacece,  p.  342 
GGG.  The  stamens  on  base  of  corolla-tube:  filaments 

monadelphous Malvacece  p.  340 

EE.  Stamens  as  many  in  number  as  the  lobes  of  the  corolla 
and  inserted  opposite  to  the  lobes:  ovary  1-celled: 
style  and  stigma  1:  pod  several- to  many-seeded. 

PrimulacecK ,  p.  390 
EEE.  Stamens  equal  in  number  to  lobes  of  corolla  and  alter- 
nate with  them,  or  fewer  in  number. 
F.  Ovary  inferior. 

G.  The  stamens  distinct,  inserted  on  corolla,  4  or 
5:  ovary  2-5  celled. 

I.  Leaves  whorled  or   opposite    with    stip- 

ule.s ". Hubiacece,  p.  334 

II.  Leaves  opposite,  without  true  stipules.. 

Caprifoliacece,  p.  39G 
GG.  The  stamens  inserted  on  corolla  and  united  by 
anthers. 
H.  Flowers  in  a  head  with  involucre  subtend- 
ing   Compositoe,  p.  400 

HH.  Flowers    not     in    involucrate    heads,    but 

separate  :   corolla  irregular  : 

Loheliacew,  p.  399 
G<GG.  The  stamens  not    inserted   on  corolla  and  not 
united    to  each  other:    no    stipules:    juice 

milky Campanulaceit ,  p.  398 

FF.  Ovary  superior. 

G  Corolla  irregular:  stamens  4,  in  2  pairs:  or  2 
stamens:  the  ovary  deeply  41obed  around 
the  style  :  fruits  4  dry  nutlets  :  stem 
square Lahiatw,  p.  368 


288  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

GG.  Corolla   somewhat   irregular:    stamens   5,    in- 
serted on  corolla. 
H.  The  ovary  deeply  4-lobed  about  the  style  . . 

Echium  in  Borraginacece,  p.  383 
HH.  The  ovary  not  lobed:  pod  many-seeded:  fila- 
ments all  or  some  woolly 

Verbascum  in  ScropJniUiridceie,  j  .  373 
QG(i.  Corolla  regular:    stamens  equal  in  number  to 
the  lobes  of  the  corolla. 
H.  Ovaries    2,    distinct:    Ivs.    opposite:    juice 
milky:  styles  or  stigmas  united  Into  1. 
I.  Stamens  separate,  inserted  on  corolla: 
corolla  bell-shaped,  funnel- or  salver- 
formed:  pollen  granular,  as  usual.. 

Apocynacece,  p.  387 
11.  Stamens  monadelphous,  anthers  attached 
to    stigma:    a    crown    of    hood-like 
appendages   each   containing  an  in- 
curved  horn,  borne  on  the  stamen 
tube:    pollen     cohering    in     masses 
(waxy  or  grunular) .  .Asclepiadacece,  p.  386 
HH.  Ovary  1,  deeply  4-lobed  around  style  (2-lobed 
in  Heliotropium). 
I.  Leaves  alternate:  plants  usually  rougli- 

hairy Borraginaceie,  p.  .381 

ir.  Leaves  opposite:  stems  square 

Mentha  in  Liihiuf(t>,  p.  370 
HHH.  Ovary  1,  not  deeply  lobed,  1-celled:  ovules 
parietal,  or  2  parietal  placentae. 
1.  Leaves  simple,  entire,  opposite,  exstipa- 

late Gentianacew,  p.  385 

II.  Leaves  toothed,  lobed  or  pinnately  com- 
pound, mostly  alternate 

Hydrophyllaceie,  p.  383 
HHHH.  Ovary  not  deeply  lobed,  2-10  celled. 

I.  Leaves  none:  parasites,  twining 

Cuscuta  in  Convolvulacece,  p.  381 
II.  Leaves  opposite,  without  stipules. 

J.  Stamens  free  from  corolla  but  inserted 

with  it:  style  1 Ericacew,  p.  391 

jj.  Stamens  inserted  on  tube  of  corolla. 

K.  Number  of   stamens   4  in    2  sets: 

ovary  2-4  celled  (cells  1-seeded) 

Verbenactw,  p.  372 
KK.  Number  of  stamens  5  or  i rarely) 
more. 


KEY     TO     THE     FAMILIES  289 

L.  Fruit  2  or  4  nutlets 

Borraginacew,  p.  381 
LL.  Fruit  a  pod,  few  seeded. 

M.  Calyx  5-lobed:  styles  3-cleft. 

Polemoniacew,  p.  384 
MM.  Calyx  5-lobed:  style  1  or  2, 
or2-cleft:  ovary  2-celled 
(rarely  3-celled):  seeds 
good -sized,  1  or  2  per 
cell:  generally  twining 
herbs  . . .  Convolviilacece,  p.  379 
LLL.  Fruit  a  pod,  many-seeded,  or  a 

berry:  style  1  .,  Solan  aceo',  p.  377 
jr.oG.  Corolla  regular  or  irregular:    stamens   fewer 
than  the  corolla-lobes. 
H.  Stamens  2:    oviiry  4-lobed:    corolla  nearly 

equally  4-lohed Lycopus  in  Labiahe,  p.  3G9 

HH.  Stamens  2  (rarely  3):  ovary  2-celled. 

I.  Woody   plants,  shrubs   or  trees:  corolla 

regular,  4-eIeft Oleacece,  p.  388 

II.  Herbs:  corolla  wheel-shaped  or  salver- 
sliaped,  with  a  4-parted  (rarely  5- 
parted)  bonier,  or  somewhat  irregu- 
lar  Veronica  in  Scrophulariacece ,  p.  370 


A.     CRYPTOGAMS. 

I.  FILICES.     Ferns. 

Herbaceous  and  leafy  plants,  ours  without  stems  or  trunks 
above  ground,  but  producing  perennial  rootstoeks  :  plants  flowerless 
and  seedless,  but  bearing  spores  in  sporangia,  the  latter  collected 
into  sori  which  are  usually  borne  on  the  under  side  or  margins  of 
the  fronds  and  which  are  sometimes  covered  with  an  indusium. — 
Most  abundant  in  warm  countries,  of  about  4000  species,  of  which 
about  165  are  native  to  the  United  States.  The  leaflets  of  feru- 
frouds  are  pinnoe  ;    the  secondary  leaflets  are  jnnnules. 

A.  Fruit   borne   in  contracted    panicles  or  on  specially  con- 
tracted parts  of  the  frond,  these  parts  being  devoid 
of  resemblance  to  green  leaves. 
B.  Sporangia  large  and  globose,  without  a  ring  of  special 

cells  running  around  their  margin 1.  Osmunda 

S 


290 


THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 


BB.  Sporangia  with  a  ring  of  prominent  elastic  cells  run- 
ning around  the  margin,  and  which  are  concerned 

in  the  dehiscence  (as  in  Fig.  307) 2.  Onoclea 

AA.  Fruit  borne  on  the  back  of  green  fronds  (the  fruiting 
pinnae  sometimes  narrowed  but  still  leaf-like,  as  in 
Fig.  305):  sporangia  with  a  ring  of  elastic  cells. 

B.  Sori  naked  (no  indusium) 3.  Pohjijodium 

BB.  Sori  borne  under  the  reflexed  margins  of  the  frond, 
c.  FinnfB   entire  on   the   lower  edge,  somewhat   trian- 
gular in  outline 4.  Adiantum 

cc.  Pinnae  toothed  on  both  margins,  oblong  in  outline. ..5.  Pteris 
BBB.  Sori  covered  with  a  distinct  scale-like  indusium. 

c.  Shape  of  sori  oblong C.  Asplenium 

CO.  Shape  circular,  indusium  peltate  or  nearly  so 7.  Dryopteris 

1.  0SMl3'NDA.    Flowering  Fern. 

Strong  ferns  from  stout  creeping  rootstocks,  with  large  pinnate  fronds: 
sporangia  covered  with  interwoven  ridges,  but  wanting  the  elastic  ring  of 
most  ferns.     Inhabitants  of  bogs  and  wet  woods. 

0.  regMis,  Linn.      Eoyal  fern.      Top  of   the  frond   contracted  into  a 

fruiting  panicle:  frond  2-piunate,  the  pinnaa  oblong,  olituse,  and  nearly  entire. 

0.    Claytoniana,     Linn. 

Fig.  418.    Two  to  four  pairs 

of  pinnae  near  the  middle  of 

the    frond    contracted    into 

^'      Awijy      ^,;^-,         fruit-bearing  parts  :    pinnae  '^^f^W(  -^  ,p-^^!^^^*^ 

'^^^^^  J^S\'J^T^    linear-lanceolote  and  acute,       '^i#4,^^llllC!?\  £i/-?'6't*ak. 

<»^.*^^M|^      deeply  lobed.  W^JFIlvC.^'^"^^^ 

^^'"  0.    cinnamdmea,    Linn.    '^'^^?^^^^^},'^^'^ 

Cinnamon  fern.      Fig.  419. 

,, ,    ^  ,    ^,  Some    fronds    entirely  con- 

418.   Osmiinda  Clay-  .  a   ■    ^     t     •4.- 

..■„„„  tracted  into  fruiting   parts,     ,  „    ^  ,      . 

and    these   cinnamon    color 

(whence  the  \ernacular  name):    sterile  form  with   the  fronds    much    like 

those  of  O.  Calytoniana  in  shape  except  more  acute  at  top. 

2.  ONOCLfiA.     Sensitive  Fern. 

Mostly  rather  strong  ferns,  with  broad  sterile  fronds  and  with  the  fer- 
tile fronds  rolled  into  hard  contracted  fruiting  bodies,  which  remain  after 
the  steril3  leafy  fronds  have  perished:  sporangia  with  an  elastic  marginal 
ring  of  cells.     Bogs  and  old  springy  fields. 

0.  sensibilis,  Linn.  Sensitive  fern.  Brake.  Fig.  310.  Sterile  frond 
triangular-ovate,  the  pinnae  not  extending  quite  to  the  midrib  and  toothed: 
fertile  frond  usually  lower  than  th3  other  (1-2  ft.  high),  with  a  few  pinnae. 
Common  in  old  pastures. 

0.  8trutlii6pteris,  Hofifm.  Ostrich  fern.  Very  tall  (2-5  ft.),  the  sterile 
fronds  narrow,  once-pinnate,  with  long-lanceoUite  acute  lobed  pinnaj:  fer- 
tile fronds  much  shorter,  blackish,  with  many  pinnae. 


FILICES  291 

3.  POLYPODIUM.     Polypody. 

Small  ferns,  with  simple  or  ouce-pinnate  fronds  from  slender  creeping 
rootstocks:   sori  round,  borne  at  the  ends  of  little  veins.     On  dry  cliffs. 

P.  vnlg^re,  Linn.  Common  polypody  or  pohjpode.  Figs.  ,300,  .307. 
Fronds  a  foot  or  less  tall,  narrow-oblong  in  outline,  pinnatifid,  the  lobes 
nearly  or  quite  entire:   fertile  pinnse  not  contracted. 

4.  ADIANTUM.     Maidenhair  Fern.     Fig.  309. 

Small  ferns  with  compound  forking  fronds  and  wedge-shaped  or  some- 
what triangular  pinnsB,  shining  stipes  or  petioles,  and  sori  borne  at  the 
ends  of  the  veins  under  the  reflexed  margins  of  the  pinnae. 

A.  pedd.tum,  Linn.  Common  maideyihair.  Plant  2  ft.  or  less  high, 
the  leaves  forking  into  several  or  many  long  pirnae  which  bear  broad  pin- 
nules notched  on  the  upper  margin.     Cool,  shady  woods.     Very  graceful. 

5.  PT£:RIS.    Brake. 

Coarse  ferns  of  mostly  dryish  places,  with  long  pinnae:  sporangia  borne 
beneath  the  reflexed  margin  of  the  pinnules,  on  small,  transverse  veins. 

P.  aquillna,  Linn.  Common  brake.  Figs.  125,  308.  Fronds  broadly 
triangular,  twice- or  thrice-pinnate,  the  pinnules  long-lanceolate,  acuminate, 
and  lobed.  Common  in  sunny  places:  perhaps  our  commonest  fern.  Two 
to  3  ft.  high,  growing  in  patches,  particularly  in  burned  areas. 

6.  ASPLfiNIUM.    Spleen  WORT. 

Middle-sized  ferns,  mostly  with  pinnate  leaves:  sori  oblong  or  linear, 
borne  on  the  upper  side  of  a  veinlet,  or  back  to  back  on  opposite  sides  of 
the  veinlet,  these  veinlets  not  interwoven. 

A.  Filiz-foeiuiiia,  Linn.  Lady-fern.  Large,  the  fronds  2-3  ft.  tall, 
growing  many  together,  twice-pinnate,  the  pinnules  oblong-pointed  and 
sharp-toothed:  sori  short  and  close  together,  at  matiirity  becoming  more 
or  less  continuous.     A  very  common  fern  in  moist  woods  and  copses. 

7.  DRYOPTERIS.    Shield-fekn. 

Much  like  the  last  in  general  appearance,  but  the  sori  circular  and 
covered  with  peltate  or  reniform  indusia. 

D.  acrostichoides,  Kuntze.  (Aspidinm  acrostichoides,  Swartz). 
Christmas  fern.  Figs.  304,  305.  Fronds  2  ft.  or  less  tall,  narrow,  once- 
pinnate,  the  pinnae  serrate  and  bearing  a  larger  tooth  on  the  upper  side 
near  the  base,  the  terminal  part  of  the  frond 
somewhat  contracted  in  fruit.  [Common  la 
woods.     Nearly  or  quite  evergreen. 

D.  Thelypteris,  Gray.  (Aspidium  The- 
lypteris,  Sv^&rtz).  Marsh  shield-fern.  Fronds 
standing  2  ft.  high,  long-pointed,  once-pin- 
nate, the  pinnae  many-lobed,  the  margins  of 
the  fertile  fronds  revolute. 

420.  Dryopteris^mTrginalis.         ,      ^-  ^^^^i^^^^^,   Gray.     Fig.  420.      Large, 
handsome  fern  growing  in  woods  and  ravines, 
2  ft.  high:  fronds  once-pin-nate,  the  pinnte  pinna*itied  and   lance-acuminate: 
sori  large  and  close  to  the  margin  of  the  frond:  petiole  chaflfy. 


292 


THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 


AA.    PHENOGAMS:    GYNOSPERMS. 


II.  CONIFERyE.     Cone-bearing  or  Pine  Family. 

Woody  plants,  mostly  trees,  with  resinous  sap  and  stiff  needle- 
shaped  or  scale-like,  mostly  evergreen  leaves:  plants  bearing  no 
ovaries,  the  ovules  lying  naked  and  receiving  the  pollen  directly: 
flowers  diclinous  (usually  monoecious),  generally  in  scaly  catkins, 
those  catkins  bearing  the  pistillate  flowers  maturing  into  cones  but 
sometimes  becoming  berry-like  (as  in  junipers).  Above  300  species, 
one-third  of  which  inhabit  North  America:  particularly  abundant  in 
elevated  and  mountainous  regions. 

a.  Cone  dry,  with  overlapping  scales. 

B.  Scales  many  and  cones  1  in.  or  more  long. 

C.  Leaves  long  and  needle-like,  in  sheaths  or  bundles  of 

2  to  5,  persistent 1.  Pinus 

cc.  Leaves  short,  scattered,  persistent. 

D.  In  cross-section,  Ivs.  4-sided :  sessile 2.  Picea 

DD.  In  cross-section,  Ivs.  flat:   short-petioled 3.  Tsitga 

ccc.  Leaves  short  but  very  slender,  in  clusters,  deciduous. 4.  Larix 

BB.  Scales  few  (3-12),  the  cones  about  }4  in.  long 5.  Thuja 

AA.  Cone  modified  into  a  fleshy,  berry-like  body 6.  Juniperus 

1.  PlNUS.     Pine. 

Trees  with  long,  persistent,  needle-shaped,  angled  leaves,  in  bundles  of 
2  to  5,  and  with  scale-like  deciduous  leaves  on  the  young  branchlets-.  sterile 
catkins  usually   borne  at  the  base  of  the 

new    shoot:    fertile  cones   maturing   the  v\'V/' '/  '^^^^ 

second  year,  often  hanging  on  the  tree  \  \\\       j   CJ  'i  h;  fW^ ^ 

for  years:  cotyledons  several.  ■^^0!^\^\     f'n'y^-^  ^" 

P.  Strdbus,  Linn.     WJiite  pine.    Figs.      ^^'^s^    '^  //.«? 

145,  272.     Large   forest  tree,  much  used  ^\A  I 

for  lumber  :    leaves  long  and  soft,  light 
green,  in  5's:  cones  long  and  symmetri- 
cal, with  thin-edged    scales,  terminal   on    ^!'^^j^l(^'^''^^^y^      ^. -^ 
the  shoots  and  falling  after  shedding  the      t^^llj^-'  /;'  "ON- 

seeds.     Grows  as  far  south  as  Georgia. 

P.  paliistris.  Mill.  Long-leaved  pine. 
Very  tall  tree,  with  nearly  smooth  bark : 
leaves  very  long  and   slender  (usually  a  '*"^-  P^^^is  rigida. 

foot  or  more),  clustered   at  the   ends   of  '^^^  "'^^'^  '°"^  ^*  ^^^  ^^"• 

the  branches,  in  3's:  cones  6  in.  or  more  long,  the  scales  tipped  with  a  short 
curved  spine.     Lumber  tree.     Virginia,  south. 

P.  rigida,  Mill.     Pitch  pine.     Fig.  421.     Medium  sized  or  small  tree  with 


CONIFEKJeJ 


293 


422.— Pinus  sylvest 


rough  dark  liark :  leaves  short  and  stiff,  usually  in  3's:  cone  2-3  in.  long, 

conical,  the  scales  with  a  short  spine.     Grows 

as  far  south  as  Va. ;  common  in  pine  barrens 

of    the    north     Atlantic    coast.      An    eastern 

species. 

P.  8ylv6stris.  Linn.  Scotch  pine.  Fig.  422. 
Medium-sized  tree,  with  glaucous  green  leaves 
in2's:  cone  short,  the  scales  tipped  with  a 
prickle  or  point.  Europe;  very  commonly 
planted. 

P.  Austriaca,  Hoss.  Austrian  pine.  Fig. 
423.  Large  tree  with  very  rough  bark,  and 
long,  dark  green  stiff  leaves  (about  6  in.  long) 
in  2's:  cone  about  3  in.  long,  the  scales 
not    prickly.     Europe,    commonly   planted;    a 

coarser  tree  than  the  Scotch  pine. 

2.  PlCEA.     Spruce. 

Trees  of  medium  or  large  size,  with  short,  scat- 
tered leaves  :  cones  maturing  the  first  year,  hanging  at 
maturity,  their  scales  thin. 

P.  exc61sa,  Link.  Norway  spruce.  Figs.  270,  27L 
Becoming  a  tall  tree  :  cones  5-7  in.  long,  the  large 
scales  very  thin-edged.  Eur.,  but  the  commonest  of 
planted  evergreens.  Until  25  to  40  years  old,  the  trees 
are  symmetrical  cone-shaped  specimens,  holding  their 
lower  branches. 

P.  nigra,  Link.     Black  spruce.    Fig.  424.     Becom- 
ing a  middle-sized  tree,  with  dull,  dark  foliage  :  cones  1%  in.  or  less  long, 
usually  hanging  for  several  years,  the  edges  of  the  scales  often  irregular. 
Cold  woods,  as  far  south  as  North 
Carolina  in  the  mountains.  .MfMMMk:^^^^?^^^-^- 

3.  TStGA.    Hemlock  Spkuce. 

Differs  from  Picea  in  having 
flat  2-ranked  petioled  leaves:  cones 
hanging  on  the  end  of  last  year's 
branches. 

T.  Canad6n8is,  Carr.  Hemlock. 
Fig.  425.  Large  forest  tree,  with 
deep -furrowed,  dark  bark  and 
coarse  wood:  leaves  whitish  be- 
neath: cones  not  an  inch  long, 
compact.  Coiiinion  lumber  tree, 
Bark  much  used  in  tanning. 


423.  Pinus  Austriaca. 


424.    Picea  nigra. 


>f 


.■;  '^^% 


J 


423.    Tsuga  CauaJeusis, 


294  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

4.  LARIX.    Larch. 

Trees  of  medium  size:  leaves  soft,  short,  in  fascicles  or  clusters  oti 
short  branchlets,  falling  in  autumn:  cones  much  like  those  of  Picea,  bu-t 
standing  erect  at  maturity. 

L.  decidua.  Mill.  {L.  J^uropivn,  DC.)  European  larch.  Leaves  1  in. 
long:  cones  of  many  scales,  about  1  in.  long.  Planted  for  ornament  and 
timber. 

L.  Americana,  Michx.  Tamarack.  Hackmatack.  Leaves  shorter  and 
pale  ill  color:  cones  of  few  scales,  \i  in.  or  less  long.     Swamps. 

5.  THUJA.     Arbok-vit^. 

Trees,  becoming  large:  leaves  opposite,  closely  appressed  to  the  branch- 
lets,  the  latter  frond-like:  cones  small,  oblong  or  globular,  of  few  scales. 
Leaves  awl-like  on  new  growths  and  scale-like  on  the  older  growths. 

T.  occidentalis,  Linn.  Arbor-vitw.  White  cedar  ot  some  places.  Fig. 
42G.  Cones  >^  in.  or  less  long,  bearing  2-winged  seeds.  Swamps  and  cold 
woods,  as  far  south  as  North  Carolina  in  the  mountains.  Very  commonly 
planted  as  a  hedge  evergreen  and  as  single  specimens,  but  in  the  wild  be- 
coming very  large  trees  and  much  used 
for  telegraph  poles. 

6.  JUNtPERUS.    Juniper. 

Small  trees  or  shrubs,  with  opposite 

or  whorled  awl-like   leaves  (often  of  two 

kinds) :  fertile  catkin  of  3-6  fleshy  scales 

which  cohere  and  form  a  berry-like  fruit 

containing  1-3  hard  seeds.  ,„^.    _     .  ■ ,     ^  ,. 

,    .      ,  .  ^  .      .  426.  Thuja  occidentabs. 

J.  commtuns,  Lmn.    Common  jumper. 

Shrub,  erect  or  usually  spreading  and  lying  close  to  the  ground,  with  leaves 

in  whorls  of  3  and  all  alike  (awl-like):  berries  large  and  smooth.     Banks 

and  sterile  ground. 

J.  Virginillna,  Linn.     l?ed  cedar.     Savin.     Small  tree  or  large  shrub, 

usually  narrow  pyramidal  in  growth,  with  leaves  of   two  kinds  (scale-like 

and  awl-like,  the  former  small  and  lying  close  to  the  branch ) :  berry  glaucous : 

heart-wood  red  and   highly  scented.     Common  on  banks  and  in  old  fields. 


B.  PHENOGAMS:    ANGIOSPERMS:    MONO-COTYLEDONS, 
in.  ARACE^.     Arum  Family. 

Perennial  herbs,  with  rhizomes  or  corm  like  tubers  and  acrid 
juice  :  flowers  minute,  often  diclinous  and  naked,  borne  on  a  spadix 
and  surrounded  or  attended  by  a  spathe:  fruit  usually  a  berry,  the 
entire  spadix  usually  enlarging  and  bearing  the  coherent  berries  in  a 


ARACE^  295 

large  head  or  spike.  Miiny  tropical  plants,  and  some  of  temperate 
regions,  many  of  them  odd  and  grotesque.  Genera  about  100;  species 
about  1,000.  Representative  plants  are  skunk  cabbage,  jack-in-the- 
pulpit,  ealla,  caladium,  anthurium.     Leaves  often  cetted-veined. 

A.  Leaves  eonipouiid  1.  A  risiema 

AA.  Leaves  simple. 

B.  Spathe  hooded  or  roofed  at  the  top 2.  Symvlocarpus 

BB.  Spathe  open  or  spreading  at  the  top 'A.  liichardia 

BBB.  Spatlie  open  and  spreading  for  its  whole  length 4.   Calla 

BBBB.  Spathe  separated  from  spadix,  appearing  lateral  ...5.  Acorus 

1.  AEIS^MA.    Indian  Turnip.    Jack-in-the-Pulpit. 

Steiu  arisinj;  from  a  corn-like  tuber,  and  bearing  1  or  2  compound  leaves 
with  sheathing  petioles:  flowers  naked  and  diclinous,  the  pistillate  at  the 
base  of  the  spadix  and  the  staminate  above  them  (or  the  plant  dioecious), 
the  top  of  the  spadix  not  flower-bearing:  staminate  flowers  of  a  few  sessile 
anthers,  and  the  pistillate  with  1  sessile  ovary,  -which  ripens  into  a  red  few- 
seeded  berry.  Plants  of  spring  or  early  summer,  in  rich  woods.  Tuber 
very  pungent,  often  used  in  domestic  medicine. 

A.  triph^llum,  Torr.  Jack-in-the-Pulpit.  Common  Indian  Turnip. 
Fig.  226.  Leaves  usually  2,  each  bearing  3  oblong-elliptic  pointed  leaflets  : 
spathe  purple-striped,  curving  over  the  spadix. 

A  Dracdntium,  Schott.  Dragon-root.  Leaf  usually  \,  with  7-11  narrow 
olilong  leaflets:   spathe  greenish,  shorter  than  the  spadix. 

2.  SYMPLOCARPUS.     Skunk  Cabbage. 

Leaves  and  flowers  arising  from  a  strong  rootstock,  the  Ivs.  very  large 
and  appearing  after  the  spathes  :  fls.  perfect,  each  with  4  sepals,  4  stamens 
and  single  ovary  which  is  sunk  in  the  fleshy  spadix:  fruit  made  up  of  the 
fleshy  spadix  with  imbedded  fleshy  seeds:  spathe  pointed  and  arching,  in- 
closing the  spadix.  Common  in  wet  meadows  in  the  north- 
eastern states.  »x  -^svi^v  . 

S.  foetidus,    Salisb.      Spathes    purple,    arising   in  the       iSv~--^!;>jL-!!li 
earliest  spring:  leaves  very  large  (often  2  ft.  long),  simple 
and  entire,  ovate,  in  tufts.      The  tufted   leaves   and  fetid 
odor  give  the  plant  the  name  of  skunk  cabbage. 

3.  RICHARDIA.     Calla  Lily. 

Leaves  several  from  each  short   rootstock,  their  peti- 
oles sheathing  the  flower-scape:    flowers  naked  and  diclin- 
ous, the  stamens  above  and  the  3-loculed  ovaries  below  on    ^27.    Richardia 
the  spadix :  spathe  large  and  showy,  the  top  flaring  and  the         Africana. 
base  rolling  about  the  spadix.     Several  species  are  cultivated,  but  the  fol- 
li)wing  is  the  only  common  one. 


296  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

R.  Africana,  Kunth.  Valla  or  Calla  lily  of  gardens.  Fig.  427.  Leaf- 
blades  broadly  arrow-shaped,  simple  and  entire,  cross-veined,  glossy:  spathe 
white  and  wax-like.     Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

4.  CALLA. 

Differs  from  the  above  in  having  a  spathe  which 
d()(  >  not  inclose  the  spadix,  and  mostly  perfect  flowers 
(tiie  upper  ones  sometimes  staminate),  each  of  6  sta- 
niLii^  and  1  ovary:   fruit  a  red  berry.     One  species. 

C  palustris,  Linn.  True  Calla.  Fig.  428.  Leaves 
about  1  ft.  high,  the  blades  arrow-shaped:  spathe  about 
2  in    lung,  white  on  the  upper  face.    In  cold  bogs,  north 

5    ACORUS.     Sweet  Flag.     Calamus. 

Erect,  having  long,  horizontal,  branching  root- 
stocKs,  thick  and  aromatic:  leaves  sword-shaped,  rising 
428.  Calla  palustris.  j^.^,^,  ^j^g  rootstocks:  scapes  3-angled,  bearing  each  a 
cylindric  spadix,  but  much  prolonged  and  leaf-like,  causing  the  spadix  to 
appear  as  if  borne  on  the  side  of  the  leaf-like  scape:  flowers  on  a  very 
dense  spadix:  ovary  oblong,  2-4celled,  with  2-8  ovules  in  each  cell. 

A.  Calamus,  Linn.  Sweet  flag.  Calamus-root.  Along  the  margins  of 
streams,  in  swamps  and  wet  soils.  Leaves  2  to  .3  ft.:  flowers  greenish- 
yellow,  very  small.  May  to  July.  The  rootstocks  supply  "sweet  flag  roots" 
of  the  druggists. 

IV.   LILIACE.E.     Lily  Family. 

Herbs,  with  bulbs,  corms,  or  large  rootstocks:  fls.  mostly  regular 
and  showy,  the  perianth  of  six  separate  or  coherent  parts,  the  stamens 
usually  six  and  standing  in  front  of  the  parts  of  the  perianth:  ovary 
superior,  usually  3-loculed,  ripening  into  a  capsule  or  berry.  About 
200  genera,  including  more  than  2,000  widely  distributed  species. 
Characteristic  plants  are  lily,  lily-of-the-valley,  onion,  Solomon's 
seal,  tulip,  trillium,  hyacinth,  asparagus,  yucca. 

A.  Fruit  a  loculicidal  capsule. 
B.  Style  1,  undivided. 

C.  Plant  bulbous:  root  leavss  not  in  large  clumps. 

D.  Stem  tall  and  leafy    L  Lilium 

DD,  Stem  short,  with  only  2  to  G  leaves. 

E.  Flower  erect 2.   Tulipa 

EE.  Flower  nodding   ."5.  Erythroninw 

DDD.   Stem  naked,  bearinir  many  flowerf. 
E.   Perianth  tubular. 


LiLiACE.i:  297 

F.   Flowers    fuiinel-fonii,     throat    open: 
lobes    spreading:  or    recurved,  as 

long  as  the  tube 4.  Eyacinthns 

FF.  Flowers    urn-shaped,    constricted    at 
throat:   lobes   much  shorter  than 

tube 5.  Muxcari 

EE.  Perianth  parted  nearly  to  base 6.  Ornifhogahiiii 

cc.  Plant    with  a  rootstock,  and    large  clumps  of 
leaves. 
D.   Flowers  yellow  and    paniculate  on  a  some- 
what branching  scape 7.  Remerocallis 

Di).  Flowers  white    or  bkie,  mostly  in  a  simple 

raceme 8.  Fioikia 

BB.  Style  1  at   base,  but  3-cleft  or  S-parted:    liowers 

bell-like,  drooping,  yellow 9.   UrnUtria 

AA.  Fruit  an  angled  berry:  styles  or  stigmas  3:   leaves 

broad  and  netted-veined 10.   Trillium 

AAA.  Fruit  a  globular  berry:   style  1:   fls.  small,  white,  or 
greenish. 
B.  Foliage   made  up  of  cladophylls,  the  true  leaves 
being  mere  scales:  stamens  borne  on  the  base 

of  the  small  corolla 11.  Asparagus 

BE.  Foliage  of  ordinary  leaves:  stamens  borne  on  the 
corolla-tube. 

c.  Perianth  of  6  parts,  separate 12.   Smilavina 

cc.  Perianth  of  4  parts 13.  Maiunthcmion 

occ.  Periantli  gamosepalous,  with  6  lobes. 

D.  Flowers  racemose  on  a  scape  14.   Cotivallaria 

DD.  Flowers  hanging  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  15.  Polygonal  urn 

1.  LlLIUM.     Lily. 

Strong-growing  bulbous  herbs,  with  leafy  stems  usually  bearing  sev- 
eral or  many  flowers:  perianth  bell-shaped  or  funnelform,  the  6  divisions 
nearly  or  quite  separate  and  spreading  or  recurving  and  having  a  honey- 
l)earing  groove  at  the  base:  anthers  attached  by  the  middle  (versatile). 

a.  Flowers  white. 

L.  longifldrum,  Thunb.  Faster  lily.  One  to  4  ft.,  with  scattered  long- 
lanceolate  pointed  leaves:  flowers  5-8  in.  long,  horizontal,  scarcely  widened 
from  the  base  to  the  middle,  fragrant.  Japan  and  China,  now  much  cul- 
tivated under  glass.  Many  of  the  bulbs  are  grown  in  the  Bermuda  Islands, 
whence  the  name  "Bermuda  lily." 

L.  cAndidum,  Linn.  Common  white  lily.  Leaves  broad-lanceolate, 
scattered:  flowers  numerous,  5  in.  or  less  long,  widening  gradually  from 
the  base.     Europe.     Common  in  gardens. 


298 


THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 


429.  Liliuni 
Philadelphicu 


aa.  Flowers  in  shades  of  yellow  or  orange. 

L.  Pliilad61pliicum,  Linn.     Fig.  429.     Flowers  1  to  3,  erect,  2-3  in.  long, 

orange-red  and  spotted,  the  divisions  separate:  leaves  whorled.     Dry  soil. 

L.  Caiiad§nse,  Linn.     Two  to  5  f t  ,  with  leaves  in  whorls 

and    bulbs    producing   rhizomes  or  runners:    fls.  several  or 

many,    erect   or    horizontal    on    lone:    stalks,    the    divisions 

spreading   above   the   middle,  orange   or   red    and    spotted. 

Meadows  and  swales. 

L.  sup6rbum,  Linn.  Fig.  430.  Very  tall,  bearing  several 
or  many  nodding  red-orange  spotted  flowers  in  a  panicle, 
the  segments  all  pointing  backwards.  Meadows  and  low 
grounds. 

L.  tigrinum,  Andr.  Tiger  Vdij.  Fig.  30.  Four  to  5  tt., 
bearing  a  loose  cottony  covering  on  the  stems:  leaves  ses- 
sile, scattered,  lanceolate  :  flowers  many, 
nodding  in  a  panicle,  orange-red  and  black- 
spotted,  the  divisions  about  4  in.  long  and  rolled  back. 
China  and  Japan  ;    old  gardens. 

2.  TtTLIPA.     Tulip. 

Low  bulbous  plants  with  a  few  leaves  near  the  ground 
on  the  1-flowered  stem:  flower  large,  erect,  the  G  divisions 
erect  or  flaring:    capsule  triangular. 

T.  Gesneri^na,  Linn.  Common  tulip.  Leaves  3-6, 
broad  :  peduncle  glabrous  :  divisions  of  the  flower  broad 
at  the  end,  with  a  very  short  point  in  the  center  :  late- 
blooming  tulips,  originally  from  Asia  Minor. 

T.  suav^olens,  Roth.  Due  Van  Thol  tulip.  Early  and  dwarf,  with 
fewer  leaves,  downy  peduncle,  and  acuminate  segments.  Caspian  Sea;  com- 
mon in  cultivation. 

3.  ERYTHRdNIUM.     Dog's-tooth  Violet. 

Low  herbs  with  deep-seated  conical  bulbs,  and  scape 
with  2  leaves  near  the  ground :  flower  nodding,  the  6  divi- 
sions wide-spreading  or  recurved,  the  style  long  and  club- 
shaped.     Blooming  in  earliest  spring. 

E.  Americ^num,  Smith.  Common  dog's-tooth  violet,  or 
adder's  tongue.  Fig.  43L  Leaves  thickish,  oblong-lance- 
olate, mottled  with  purple  :  flower  light  yellow,  nodding 
on  a  stem  3-6  in.  tall.     Low  grounds. 

E.  ilbidum,  Nutt.  White  adder's  tongue.  Leaves 
Americjinum.       scarcely  mottled  :    flowers  whitish.     Low  grounds. 

4.  HYAClNTHUS.     nvACiNTH. 

Low  plants,  with  large  bulbs,  producing  many  flowers  in  spikes  or  dense 
racemes  on  a  short  scape,  the  leaves  arising  directly  from  the  bulb:  flowers 
bell-shaped  or  funnelform,  the  6  lobes  spreading  or  curling  back. 


431.   Erythroiiium 


LILIACE^  299 

H.  orieiitd,lis,  Linn.  Common  hi/acinfh.  Fig.  174.  Early  spring,  tlie 
flowers  of  many  colors  and  sometimes  double,  the  perianth-tube  swollen,  the 
oblong-spatulate  lobes  as  long  as  the  tube.     Greece  to  Asia  Minor. 

Var.  dlbulus,  Baker.  Moman  hyacinth.  Flowers  fewer  and  usually 
smaller,  white  or  nearly  so,  the  perianth-tube  scarcely  swollen  and  the  lobes 
shorter.     France.     Much  cultivated. 

').  MUSCARI.     Gkape  Hyacinth. 

Low  herbs,  with  very  narrow,  somewhat  fleshy  leaves  and  sm  vU  flowers 
in  a  raceme:  perianth  deep  blue  or  white,  the  tube  ventricose  or  urn-shaped, 
with  ()  short  l)lunt  teeth. 

M.  botryoides,  Mill.  Gmpe  hynciuth.  Flowers  faintly  odorous,  nod- 
ding, deep  blue:  scape  4-10  in. :  leaves  linear,  obtuse,  erect,  becoming  longer 
than  scapes.  In  grass  about  gardens  and  lawns  in  very  early  spring;  also 
escaped  in  some  places  to  meadows  and  along  roadsides.     Asia. 

6.  ORNITHOGALUM.     Star  of  Bethlehem. 

Stemless  low  herbs,  with  narrow  linear,  fleshy,  channelled  leaves: 
flowers  in  terminal  clusters,  usually  with  conspicuous  bracts:  perianth 
of  G  parts,  white,  spreading,  veined:  stamens  G,  hypogynous:  filaments 
flattened,  subulate:  ovary  sessile,  3-celled:  capsule  roundish,  3  angled: 
seeds  few,  black. 

0.  umbellatum,  Linn.  Scape  4-10  in.;  flowers  5-8,  on  long  spreading 
pedicels:  sepals  white,  each  with  green  band  outside.  Common  about 
gardens.     Introduced  from  Europe.    Early  spring. 

7.  HEMEROCALLIS.     Yellow  Day-lily. 

Strong-growing  plants  from  tuberous  roots,  producing  clumps  of  long 
sword-shaped  leaves:  flowers  yellow  or  orange,  erect,  large  and  lily-like,  in 
clusters  or  panicles  on  a  tall,  branching  scape,  the  divisions  widely  spread- 
ing at  the  top.     Olil  World,  but  common  in  gardens, 

H.  fulva,  Linn.  Orange  day-lily.  Flowers  tawny 
orange,  produced  in  early  summer,  the  inner  perianth  di- 
visions nearly  or  quite  obtuse.  The  commonest  species, 
and  often  escaped  along  roadsides. 

H.  fiava.  Linn.  Yellotv  day-lily.  Plant  somewhat 
smaller,  early-blooming:  flowers  fragrant,  pure  lemon-yel- 
lew,  inner  divisions  acute. 

8.  FUNKIA.     White  and  Blue  Day-lily. 

Medium-sized  plants,  producing  dense  clumps  of  broad- 
bladed  leaves  from  rootstocks:    flowers  blue  or  white,  in 
racemes  on  scapes,  each  flower  sheathed  at  the  base  by  1     432.   Funkia  sud- 
or  2  bracts,  the  perianth-tube  long  and  the  limb  sometimes  eordata. 

irregular.     China  and  Japan;  planted  by  houses  and  along  walks. 

F.  subcordata.  Spreng.  White  day-lily.  Fig.  432.  Leaves  broadly 
cordate-ovate;  flowers  large  and  white,  in  a  short  raceme,  not  drooping. 


300  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

F.  ovata,  Sprena:.  {F.  aerulea,  Sweet).  Blue  dui)  -  lily .  Fig.  433. 
Leaves  broadly  ovate:   Howers  deep  blue,  in  a  long  raceme,  nodding. 

!).  UVULARIA.     Bellwort.    "Wild  Oats." 

Low,  erect  plants,  with  short  rootstocks:  stems 
with  leaves  alternate  above,  sessile  or  perfoliate, 
parallel-veined:  flowers  yellow,  drooping,  solitary 
at  the  end  of  the  forking  stems,  the  perianth 
elongated,  bell-shaped,  of  6  similar,  distinct,  nar- 
row sepals,  each  bearing  a  nectar  gland  at  inside 
base.     Spring-flowering  wood  plants. 

U.    grandifldra.    Smith.      Large-flowered   Bell- 
wort.    Commonly  1-2  ft.  tall:  leaves  oblong,  whitish- 
4J3.    Funkia  ovata.        pubescent  beneath,  and  perfoliate:  perianth  smooth 
on  inner  surfaces.     Common  in  rich  woods.     Blooms  a  little  earlier  than  U. 
perfoliata. 

U.  perfoliata,  Linn.  Smaller  than  the  preceding:  glaucous,  leaves  per- 
foliate: perianth  segments  twisted,  covered  on  inner  surface  with  shining 
grains  (papillose):  flowers  somewhat  fragrant,  pale  yellow.  Common  in 
moist  woods. 

U.    sessilifolia,    Linn.      Strnw    lilies.     {OKki^sio    .^e.'<.'<ilifdlin).     Leaves 
sessile,  lance-oval,  thin,  smooth,  pale  beneath:    stem  angled,  slender  and 
zigzag:  flower  greenish-yellow,  about  1  in.  long.     Woods. 
10.  TRILLIUM.     Wake-robin 

Low  herbs  from  deep-seated  corm-like  tubers:  leaves  3  in  a  whorl,  broad 
and  netted-veined:  flower  single,  of  3  colored  petals  and  3  green  sepals,  the 
latter  persistent  until  the  angled,  many-seeded  berry  ripens:  stigmas  3, 
often  sessile.     Plants  of  earliest  spring,  growing  in  rich  woods. 

a.    Flower  sessile  in  the  leaf-whorl. 
T.  sessile,  Linn.     Flowers  dull  purple,  the  parts  narrow,  pointed,   and 
nearly  erect:  leaves  sessile,  ovate^  often  blotched  with  purple.    Pa.,W.  and  S. 

aa.    Flower  stalked  in  the  leaf-whorl. 

T.  grandiflbmm,  Linn.  Common  wake-robin,  or  birthroot.  Fig.  221. 
Flowers  large  and  white,  the  peduncle  standing  erect  or  nearly  so,  the 
petals  broadest  above  the  middle  (obovate)  and  2-2J^  in.  long:  leaves  broad- 
ovate,  sessile  or  nearly  so.     Flowers  become  rose-pink  with  age. 

T.  er6ctum,  Linn.  Flowers  smaller,  ill-scented,  varying  from  white  to 
pink  and  purple,  the  peduncle  erect  or  declined,  the  petals  ovate  or  lanceolate 
and  spreading:  leaves  broad-ovate.     Frequent  north,  and  south  to  Tenn. 

T.  c6rnuum,  Linn.  Flowers  not  large,  white,  the  peduncle  declined  under 
the  broad  leaves;   petals  ovate-lanceolate,  rolled  back.     Range  of  the  last. 

T.  erythrocarpum,  Michx.  Painted  wake-robin.  Flowers  on  peduncles, 
erect,  or  partly  declined:  segments  ovate,  or  ovate-lanceolate,  margined, 
l!iiti,  widely  spreading,  white,  penciled  with  purple  stripes  at  base:  sepals 


LILIACE^  301 

half  as  long  as  petals:  leaves  ovate,  taper-pointed,  distinctly  petioled, 
obtuse  or  rounded  at  the  base.  Cool  damp  woods,  from  New  Brunswick  to 
Georgia,  and  west. 

11.  ASPAEAGUS.      ASPARAGU.S. 

Mostly  tall,  often  climbing  plants  with  cladophylla  and  very  small 
scale-like  true  leaves:  flowers  white  or  greenish,  small,  bell-shaped,  scat- 
tered or  in  groups  of  2  or  3:  fruit  a  3-loculed  and  1-G-seeded  small  berry. 

A.  oiiicinalis,  Linn.  Common  asparagus. 
Figs.  147,  148.  Erect  and  branchy,  the  strong  young 
shoots  thick  and  edible:  berries  red.     Eur. 

A.  plumdsus,  Baker.     Fig.  149.     Twining,  with 
dark,  frond-like   foliage,  small   white   flowers   and 
434.  >»      black  berries.     S.  Africa;  greenhouses. 

Asparagus  medeoloides.  ^  medeololdes,  Thunb.     Smilax  of  florists  (but 

not  of  botanists).  Fig.  434.  Twining:  foliage  broad  and  leaf -like:  fls.  soli- 
tary and  fragrant:  berries  dark  green.     S.  Africa;  much  grown  by  florists. 

12.  SMILACiNA.    False  Solomon's  Seal. 

Low,  erect  plants  with  many  small  white  flowers  in  racemes  or  pani- 
cles:   perianth  6-parted:  fruit  a  3-loculed  berry:    rootstock  creeping. 

S.  racemdsa,  Desf.  False  s])ikenafd.  About  2  ft.,  tall,  somewhat 
downy,  with  many  oblong  or  oval  leaves:  flowers  in  a  panicle:  berries  pale 
red,  speckled.     Spring  and  early  summer.     Rich  woods. 

S.  stelld.ta,  Desf.  Nearly  or  quite  smooth:  leaves  narrower:  flowers  in 
a  simple  raceme.     Forms  patches  in  low  ground. 

13.  MAIANTHEMUM.    Two-leaved  Solomon's  Seal. 

Neat  little  herbs,  with  slender  rootstocks:  stems  unbranched,  few- 
leaved:  flowers  small,  in  an  open  raceme,  with  usually  2  or  3  pedicels 
together:  perianth  of  4  ovate,  obtuse,  spreading  segments,  united  at  base: 
fruit  a  globular  1-2  seeded  berr}'.     One  species  in  eastern  North  America. 

M.  Canadense,  Desf.  Slender  stem,  3-6  in.  high,  terminated  by  the 
many-flowered  raceme:  flowers  white:  leaves  ovate,  cordate  at  base,  short- 
stalked.  Common  in  moist  woods  and  on  shaded  banks,  making  mats  or 
patches.     May  to  July. 

U.  CONVALLABIA.     Lily -of-the  valley. 

Low,  spring-rtowering  herbs  from  brandling  rootstocks:  flowers  ganio- 
petalous,  white  and  waxy,  nodding  in  a  1-sided  raceme,  the  (J  short  lobes 
recurving:   fruit  a  red  berrj'. 

C.  majalis,  Linn.  Leaves  obloug,  numerous  from  the  rootstocks,  form- 
ing mats,  and  about  2  with  each  scape:  flowers  very  fragrant.  One  of  the 
best-known  garden  flowers.     Europe.     The  only  species. 

15.  POLYGONATUM.     Solomon's  Seal. 

Mostly  strong  plants  from  long  running  rootstocks  on  which  the  scars 
of  preceding  stalks  are  very  evident  (whence  the  common    name):    stems 


^>02  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

leafy,  bearing  nodding  gamosepalous  flowers  in  the  axils:  fruit  a  globular, 
dark-colored  berry.     Rich  woods,  spring. 

P.  giganteum,  Dietr.  Three  to  5  ft.  tall:  leaves  ovate,  somewhat  clasp- 
ing:  peduncles  in  each  axil,  2-8  flowered:  filaments  not  roughened. 

P.  bifldrum,  Ell.  One-:^  ft.:  leaves  oblong,  nearly  sessile,  somewhat 
glaucous,  hairy:   iieduiicles  usually  2-ttowered:  filaments  roughened. 


V.    COMMELINACE^.     Spiderwort  Family. 

Herbs,  annual  or  perennial,  with  flat,  narrow  leaves,  sheathing  at 
base:  roots  fibrous,  sometimes  thickened:  flowers  regular  or  irregular, 
perfect,  usually  showy,  in  terminal  cymes,  usually  borne  above  a 
leafy  or  spathe-like  bract:  sepals  3:  petals  3,  soon  decaying  or 
falling;  stamens  6,  hypogynous,  some  of  them  often  deformed  or 
abortive:  ovary  2-3-celled,  style  single,  stigma  entire  or  somewhat 
lobed:  juice  slimy  or  mucilaginous.  More  than  300  species,  mainly 
belonging  to  tropical  regions. 

A.  Flowers    irregular,    enclosed    in    cordate    spathe-like 

floral  leaf :  perfect  stamens  3  (rarely  2) 1.   Commelina 

AA.  Flowers    regular,    or    nearly    so:     bracts    leaf- like; 

stamens  6 2.   Tradescantia 

AAA.  Flowers  somewhat  irregular,  tubular,  usually  in  pairs: 

trailing  habit,  easily  rooting  at  nodes .S.  Zebrina 

1.  COMMELlNA.     Day  Flower. 

Plants  ei-ect  or  partly  procumbent  and  rooting  at  joints,  succulent, 
branching:  leaves  petioled  or  sessile,  the  floral  leaf  or  spathe  cordate: 
flowers  recurved  on  their  pedicels  and  hooded  by  the  floral  leaf  before  and 
after  flowering,  open  for  a  short  time  only. 

C.  Virginica,  Linn.  Stem  glabi-ous  or  somewhat  downy,  ascending  1-2 
ft.:  leaves  lanceolate  to  linear,  acuminate:  flowers  1  in.  wide,  the  odd  petal 
very  small.     In  moist  soil. 

2.  TRADESCANTIA.     Spiderwort. 

Mucilaginous  herbs,  with  stout,  succulent  stems,  simple,  or  branched: 
leaves  elongated,  narrow,  keeled,  sometimes  purple-veined:  flowers  in  ter- 
minal and  axillary  umbelled  clusters,  with  leaf-like  bracts,  not  tubular: 
filaments  glabrous  or  bearded. 

T.  Virginica,  Linn.  Plant  green,  erect,  with  linear  leaves;  flower 
clusters  showy,  terminal:  corolla  over  1  in.  broad:  the  3  petals  deep  blue 
(rarely  white),  longer  than  sepals:  filaments  blue,  and  clothed  with  hairs. 
Cultivated  and  wild;  mostly  in  rich  soil.  Very  variable.  Flowers  quickly 
fading  by  becoming  mucilaginous,  but  produced  all  summer. 


COMMELINACE^ — AMARYLLIDACE^  303 

T.  pilbsa,  Lehm.  Stout,  more  or  less  zigzag,  stems  soft-hairy  or 
nearly  smooth :  leaves  lanceolate,  tapering  at  apex,  narrowed  at  base,  hairy 
on  both  sides:  cymes  terminal  and  axillary,  or  on  short  axillary  branches: 
flowers  ■%-!  in.  wide.  In  rich  moist  soil,  woods  and  thickets,  or  iu  shaded 
places. 

T.  flumiii6nsis,  Veil.  One  of  the  greenhouse  plants  known  as  Wander- 
ing .Jew  (see  Zehrin.d),  but  leaves  usually  green  and  flowers  white.  S. 
Amer. 

.'!.  ZEBRiNA.     Wandering  Jew. 

Low,  trailing  or  partially  climbing,  rooting  readily  at  the  nodes,  and 
branching:  leaves  often  striped  with  purple,  green,  white,  thick  and  ovate: 
Howers  small,  more  or  less  irregular,  tubular,  usually  in  pairs. 

Z.  p6ndala,  Schnitzl.  Stems  trailing,  perennial:  corolla  3-parted, 
roseate:  calyx  with  short  tube,  3-parted:  ovary  3-celled,  3-6  ovuled: 
leaves  ovate  or  oblong,  heavy  or  succulent,  green  and  silver  stripes  above, 
purple  beneath.     Much  used  for  vases  and  baskets.     A  native  of  Mexico. 


VI.    AMARYLLIDACE^.     Amaryllis  Family. 

DifEers  from  Liliacefe  chiefly  in  having  an  inferior  ovary  and  in 
bearing  its  flowers  more  uniformly  on  scapes.  More  than  600  species 
in  nearly  70  genera,  widely  dispersed.  Representative  plants  are 
narcissus,  daffodil,  snowdrop,  tuberose,  amaryllis  lilies.  Plants  of 
the  first  three  genera  may  be  grown  from  bulbs  in  the  school-room. 

A.  Plants  from  coated  bulbs;   stem  a  leafless  scape. 

B.  Perianth  with  a  crown  or  cup  in  its  centre 1.  Narcissus 

BB.   Perianth  with  no  cup. 

c.  Anthers  and  style  pointed 2.   GaUintlius 

cc.  Anthers  and  style  blunt 3.  Leucoium 

AA.   Plants  from  tuberous  rootstocks  or  corms. 

B.  Stem  tall  and  leafy 4.   PotiantJies 

BB.  Stem  a  low,  leafless  scape 5.  Hypoxis 

1.  NARCISSUS.     Narcissus.     Daffodil. 

Low  plants  producing  from  1  to  many  6-parted  flowers  on  a  scape  which 
arises  from  a  tunicated  bulb:  Derianth  with  a  long  tube  and  bearing  a  cup 
or  crown  in  its  center.     Old  World,  but  frequently  cultivated. 

a.  Crown  as  long  as,  or  longer  than,  the  divisions  of  the  perianth. 

N.  Pseddo-Narcissus,  Linn.  Trumpet  narcissus.  Common  daffodil. 
Fig.  234.  Scape  1-flowered,  the  flower  large  and  yellow  with  a  relatively 
short  tube  and  a  wavy-edged  crown.  Leaves  fiat  and  glaucous.  Double 
forms  are  common  in  gardens. 


304 


THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 


435. 
Narcissus  Tazetia. 


aa.  CrotvH  half  or  more  as  long  as  the  divisions  of  the  perianth. 
N.  incomparibilis,  Curt.     Scape   1-flowered.  the   flower  about  2  In.  or 
more  across,  yellow,  the  cylindrical  tube  1  in.  long,  the  crown  plaited  and 
usually  a  deeper  yellow:  leaves  flat  and  glaucous. 

aaa.  Crown  less  than  half  the  length  of  the  division. 

N.  Taz6tta,  Linn.  Polyanthus  narcissus.  Chinese 
sacred  lily.  Fig.  435.  Flowers  several  to  many  in  an 
umbel,  yellow  or  white,  small,  the  crown  usually  darker 
colored  and  usually  somewhat  scalloped:  leaves  flat  and 
somewhat  glaucous.  One  of  the  commonest  kinds. 
The  narcissus  known  to  florists  as  "  Paper-white  "  is  a 
white-flowered  form  of  this  species. 

N.  posticus,  Linn.  Poet^s  narcissus.  Scape  rather 
slender,  usually  1-flowered,  the  flower  white  with  the 
thick  rim  of  the  very  short  crown  margined  with  red  : 
leaves  flat,  glaucous. 

N.  Jonquilla,  Linn.  Jonquil.  Scape  2-5-flowered,  the  flowers  small  and 
yellow,  the  tube  slender  and  the  segments  wide-spreading:  leaves  linear, 
somewhat  cylindrical. 

2.  GALANTHUS.     Snowdrop. 

Small,  spring-blooming  plants,  with  a  single  white  flower  nodding  from 

the  top  of   the  scape,  followed   by  grass-like  leaves:  perianth  divisions  C, 

oblong  and   more  or   less  concave,  the   three    inner  ones  shorter,  some   of 

y     them   usually  green-blotched  at  the  tip  :    anthers  and  style 

/       pointed. 

/  G.  nivalis,  Linn.    Snowdrop.     Fig.  43G.     One  of  the  earli- 

\\    M    est  of  spring  flowers,  appearing  as  soon  as  the  snow  is  gone, 

^        }fe      the  flower  and  leaves  arising  from  a  small  bulb:  scape  6  in. 

\  si        or  less  high:  inner  divisions  of  the  bell-shaped  flower  tipped 

vrfilf  with  green.     Europe. 

3.  LEUCOIUM.     Snowflake. 

Flowers  often  more  than  1 :  divisions  of  the  perianth  all 
alike:  anthers  and  style  blunt:  otherwise  very  like  Galanthus. 

L.  v6rnum,  Linn.  Snowflake.  Taller  than  the  snow- 
drop (about  1  ft.),  the  scape  usually  1-flowered,  blooming 
later,  the    flowers  larger.     Europe. 

4.  POLIANTHES.     Tuberose. 

Leafy-stemmed  lily-like  plants,  with  a  thick,  tuberous  rootstock  (whence 
the  name  tuber-ose  not  tube-rose),  bearing  an  erect  spike  of  white  flowers: 
perianth  with  a  short  slightly  curved  tube  and  G  spreading  nearly  equal 
divisions:   stamens  included  in  the  tube  (not  projecting). 

P.  tuberdsa,  Linn.  Tuberose.  Two  to  3  ft.  bearing  long-linear,  chan- 
nelled, many-ranked  leaves:    flowers  very  fragrant,  sometimes  tinted  with 


IRIDACE.1:  305 

rose.     A  popular  garden  plant  from  Mexico,  blooming  in  the  open  in  late 
summer  and  autumn;  some  forms  are  double. 

r>.  HYPCXIS.     Star-grass. 

Steuile.ss,  with  grass-lilie.  hairy  leaves,  growing  from  a  corm-like  root- 
stock:  Howers  yellow  on  filiform  scapes:  perianth  6-parted. 

H.  er6cta,  Linn.  Scape  3-8  in.,  not  so  long  as  the  grassy  leaves,  soft- 
hairy;  flowers  1-4,  yellow,  greenish  without,  about  %  in.  in  diameter. 
Common  in  dry  soils. 


VII.    IRIDACE.^.    Iris  Family. 

Differs  from  Amaryllidacese  and  Liliaceas  in  its  inferior  ovary, 
three  stamens  which  are  opposite  the  outer  parts  of  the  perianth, 
and  2-ranked  equitant  (bases  overlapping)  leaves:  stigmas  some- 
times large  and  petal-like.  About  60  genera  and  700  species.  Rep- 
resentative plants  are  iris  or  blue  flag,  crocus,  gladiolus,  freesia. 
Crocuses  and  freesias  are  easily  grown  in  window-boxes  for  winter 
and  spring  bloom. 

A.  Lobes  of  the  style  expanded  and  colored,  looking  like 

petals 1.  Iris 

AA.  Lobes  of  the  style  thread-like. 

B.  Plant  steraless:  flowers  borne  on  scapes. 

c.  From    corms:    spathe  1-flowered:    flower    large, 

and  perianth  tube  long  and  slender 2.   Crocus 

CO.  From  mostly  fibrous  roots :  perianth  tube  scarcely 
perceptible,  if  at  all:  fls.  small:  spathe  2-  or 

more  flowered 3.  Sisi/rincJiium 

BB.  Plants  with  a  leaf-bearing  and  flower-bearing  stem. 

c.  Flowers  in  a  short  1-sided  cluster:  plant  small  ..4.  Freesia 
rr.  Flowers  in  a  terminal  spike:  plant  large 5.   Gladiolus 

1.  IRIS.     Fleur-de-lis.     Flag. 

Mostly  strong  plants,  with  rhizomes  or  tubers:  flowers  mostly  large  and 
showy,  the  three  outer  segments  recurving  and  the  three  inner  ones  usually 
smaller  and  more  erect  or  sometimes  incurving:  the  three  long  divisions  of 
the  style  petal-like  and  often  more  or  less  hairy,  covering  the  stamens: 
stigma  on  the  under  side  of  the  style :  leaves  long  and  sword-shaped.  Several 
wild  and  many  cultivated  species.  The  following  species  have  rhizomes, 
a.    Flouers  yellow. 

1.  Pseudacorus,  Linn.  Common  yellow  flag.  One  to  3  ft.,  with  several- 
flowered,  often  branching  stamens:  outer  divisions  of  the  perianth  with  no 
hairs  or  crests:  flowers  bright  yellow.     Europe. 

T 


306 


THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 


:i;i.     Flowers  in  shades  of  blue  (sometimes  varying  to  icJiife). 
I.  versicolor,  Linn.     Common  wild  blue  flag.    Two  to  3  ft.,  stout:  leaves 
^-in.  wide,  flat:  flowers  about  3  in.  long,  short-stalked,  violet-blue,  the  tube 
shorter  than  the  ovary,  the  inner  petals   small 
and  the  outer  ones  with  no  hairs.     Swamps. 

I.  laevigata,  Fisch.  &  Mey.  (/.  Kcempferi, 
8ieb.).  Japan  iris.  Two  to  3  feet,  the  stem 
much  overtopping  the  thin,  broad  leaves :  flowers 


437.  Iris  Germanica.  438.  Crocus  vernus.  439.  Freesia  refracta. 

large  (sometimes  several  inches  across),  flat,  the  inner  lobes  spreading,  the 
outer  ones  very  large  and  rounded,  with  no  hairs  or  crests :  color  mostly  in 
shades  of  blue  and  purple.  Japan;  now  one  of  the  choicest  of  garden  irises. 
I.  Germdnica,  Linn.  Common  blue  flag  of  gardens  (sometimes  runs  wild). 
Fig.  437.  Two  to  3  feet,  with  long  sword-shaped  leaves:  flowers  few  or 
several  to  each  stem,  about  3  to  4  in.  across,  the  drooping  outer  segments 
with  yellow  hairs,  the  inner  segments  erect  and  arching  inwards.     Europe. 

2.  CROCUS.     Crocus. 

Small,  stemless  plant-,  the  long-tubed  flowers  and  the  grass-like  leaves 
arising  directly  from  the  coated  corm :  flowers  with  the  G  obovate  divisions 
all  alike  and  erect-spreading  or  the  inner  ones  a  little  the  smaller,  opening 
only  in  sunshine.     The  following,  from  Europe,  blooms  in  earliest  spring. 

C.  vernus,  Linn.  Common  crocus.  Fig.  438.  Leaves  2-4  to  each  flower, 
glaucous  on  the  under  side:  flower  rising  little  above  the  ground;  color  in 
shades  of  lilac  and  variously  striped,  sometimes  white. 

3.  SISYRlNCHIUM.    Blue-eyed  Grass. 

Low,  slender,  perennial  herhs  with  grass-like,  linear,  or  lanceolate 
leaves  and  fibrous  roots:  scapes  or  stems  erect,  compressed,  2-edged  or 
winged,  often  branched:  flowers  small,  usually  blue  or  bluish,  soon  wither- 
ing, in  terminal  2-5-flowered  umbels  in  a  2-leaved  spathe:  perianth  seg- 
ments spreading,  bristle-pointed:  stamens  3,  monadelphous:  style  1  long; 
stigmas  very  slender;  ovary  3-celled. 

S.  angustifdlium,  Mill.  Grassy  plants  in  tufts  or  clumps:  scape  4  in.  to  1 
ft.,  spathe  single,  sessile:  flowers  blue  to  purple,  "arely  white;  petals  notched 
and  mucrouate.     In  moist  meadows,  among  grass.     Summer.     Common. 


IRIDACE^— ORCHIDACEiE  307 

4.  FKEfiSIA.     Freesia. 

Small  cormous  plants  with  flat  leaves:  flowers  white  or  yellowish,  tubu- 
lar, with  a  somewhat  spreading  limb,  the  tube  generally  curved:  stem  about 
1  ft.  high,  bearing  several  erect  flowers  on  a  sidewise  cluster.  Popular 
florists'  plants  of  easy  culture  and  quick  growth. 

F.  refrdcta,  Klatt.  Fig.  439.  Leaves  narrow:  flower  usually  somewhat 
2-lipped  or  irregular,  white  in  the  most  popular  forms  but  yellowish  in  some, 
often  with  blotches  of  yellow;  fragrant.    Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

5    GLADIOLUS.     Gladiolus. 

Tall,  erect  plants,  with  flat,  strong-veined  leaves,  the  stem  " 
arising  from  a  conn  (Fig.  50) :   flowers  in  a  more  or  less  l-sidet 
terminal   spike,  short-tubed,  the    limb  flaring  and   somewhat 
unequal:    stamens  separate  (united  in  some  related  genera):    440.  Gladiolus 
style  long,  with  three  large  stigmas.  '  Gandavensis. 

G.  Gandav6nsis,  Van  Houtte.  Fig.  440.  Upper  segments  of  the  peri- 
anth nearly  horizontal:  colors  various  and  bright:  spikes  long.  Hybrid  of 
two  or  more  species  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Summer  and  fall.  The 
common  gladioli  of  gardens  are  greatly  hybridized. 


Vlir.  ORCHID ACE.5].     Orchid    Fa.mily. 

Perennial  herbs,  distinguished  by  singular  and  extremely  irregu- 
lar perfect  flowers,  among  the  most  ornamental  and  interesting  of 
native  and  exotic  plants,  curiously  adapted,  in  most  cases,  to  insect 
pollination;  many  air-plants  (epiphytes)  of  the  tropics  and  warmer 
regions  also  belong  to  this  family.  Leaves  usually  alternate,  simple, 
entire,  sheathing:  perianth  in  6  divisions,  adnate  to  the  1 -celled 
ovary:  sepals  3,  the  outer  segments  of  the  perianth  usually  colored 
and  similar  or  nearly  so,  appearing  petal-like,  the  2  lateral  petals 
generally  alike;  third  petal,  the  lip  (the  upper  petal  and,  morpho- 
logically, next  to  axis,  but  apparently  next  to  bract,  by  a  peculiar 
twisting  of  the  ovary),  very  unlike  the  others,  usually  larger  and 
frequently  lobed,  spurred,  or  saccate:  stamens  one  or  two  fertile, 
variously  conherent  with  the  style  or  with  a  thick,  fleshy  stigma,  all 
together  forming  the  column  :  pollen  in  waxy  or  powdery  masses :  ovary 
inferior.  About  5,000  species  and  over  400  genera,  of  wide  distri- 
bution but  most  abundant  in  the  tropics;  species  rather  difficult  to 
determine,  and  therefore  not  described  here  in  detail.  Ours  usually 
found  in  cool,  damp  woods,  bogs,  and  meadows.  Some  of  the  rarest 
of  greenhouse  plants,  and  often  very  difficult  to  grow,  are  members  of 
this  family. 


308  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

A.  Lip  sac-like  or  inflated,  larger  than  the  other  p;irts. 
B.  Anthers  2,  one  on  each  side  of  the  stjle:  a  spread- 
ing  sterile   stamen   over  the    summit  of   the 
style:     flowers     generally    large    and    droop- 
ing   1 .   Cypripedium 

AA.  Lip  not  saccate,  but  spurred,  and  sometimes  fringed: 
flowers  in  a  terminal  spike. 

B.  Sepals  more  or  less  spreading 2.  Hahenaria 

BB.  Sepals  and  petals  somewhat  arching  together 3.  Orchis 

AAA.  Lip  not  noticeably  saccate  or  spurred. 

B.  Flowers  in  spikes,  appearing  more  or  less  twisted 
about  the  spike,  in  one  or  several  rows:  flow- 
ers small. 

C.  Leaves  not  variegated 4.  Spiranthes 

cc.  Leaves  variegated  with  white  veins 5.   Goody  era 

BB.  Flowers  1  to  several,  in  a  spike-like  loose  raceme: 
or  terminal  on  a  leaf-bearing  stem, 
c.  Stem    (scape)    from    one    grass-like    leaf:      lip 

crested  with  colored  hairs 6.   Ca  lopogon 

CC.  Stem  1-3-leaved 7.  Pogonia 

1.  CYPKIPfiDIUM.     Lady's  Supper.     Moccasin  Flower. 

Distinguished  by  having  2  fertile  anthers:  pollen  sticky,  as  though  var- 
nished on  suiface,  powdery  beneath:  lip  a  large,  inflated,  spurless  sac, 
toward  which  the  column  bends:  leaves,  large,  broad,  manv-nerved:  flowers 
large,  showy.     Fig.  225. 

C.  spect&bile,  Swartz.  Stem  leafy,  1-2  ft.,  or  more:  flower  solitary  or 
two  or  three  together;  lip  a  globular  sac,  white,  colored  with  purplish-pink, 
l>2-2  in.  long.  In  swamps,  bogs  and  woods,  north,  and  south  in  mountains. 
June  to  September.     One  of  our  rare  and  beautiful  wild  flowers. 

C.  acaMe,  Ait.  Scape  1  ft.  tall,  with  two  leaves  at  base,  1-flowered: 
sepals  greenish -purple,  spreading:  lip  pink,  veined  with  rose-purple,  about 
2  in.  long,  fragrant,  split  down  the  front,  but  edges  closed.  Woods  and 
bogs.     May  to  June. 

C.  pub^scens,  Willd.  Stem  slender,  leafy,  1-2  ft.,  usually  clustered, 
1-  to  several-flowered:  flowers  yellow,  lip  much  inflated,  with  purplish  stripes 
or  spots,  lK-2  in.  long:   low  woods,  meadows.     May  to  July. 

C.  parvifldrum,  Salisb.  Stem  1-2  ft.  high,  leafy,  1-  to  several-flowered: 
flowers  yellow,  fragrant:  lip  usually  more  marked  with  purplish  spots  or 
lines  than  preceding  and  smaller,  about  1  in.  long.  Low  woods  and 
thickets.     May  to  July. 

C.  cindidum,  Willd.  Lip  white,  with  purple  veins  and  stripes,  not  1  in. 
long.  A  very  rare  species,  found  in  bogs  and  wet  meadows,  New  York  and 
New  Jersey  to  Minnesota,  Missouri,  Kentucky. 


ORCHIDACE^  309 

C.  arietlnum,  K.  Br.  Slender,  less  than  1  ft.,  leafy  stemmed:  flower  1, 
drooping,  the  3  sepals  separate  and  very  narrow  and  greenish,  the  lip  some- 
what shorter  than  sepals  one-half  in.  long,  red  with  lighter  veins.  Cold 
woods.  North. 

2.  HABENARIA.     Fringed  or  Ragged  Orchids. 

Flowers  several  or  numerous,  in  open  terminal  spikes,  each  flower  in 
the  axil  of  a  foliaceous  bract:  corolla  white,  purplish  or  yellow,  with  lip 
variously  fringed  or  3-parted  and  cut-toothed,  spur  longer  than  lip:  1 
anther:  pollen-mass  stalked,  cohering.  Growing,  for  most  part,  in  wet 
places,  borders  of  ponds,  etc.,  through  eastern  United  States.  Several 
species,  rather  too  critical  for  the  beginner  and  therefore  not  described 
here      By  some,  the  genus  is  broken  up  into  several  genera. 

3.  Orchis. 

Very  similar  to  Habenaria,  differing  in  having  the  glands  attached  to 
the  pollen  masses,  and  enclosed  in  a  kind  of  pocket:  the  petals  are  arched 
and  somewhat  connivent  over  the  column. 

0.  Bpectdbilis,  Linn.  Stem  short,  from  2  large  and  glossy  root  leaves, 
and  carrying  1  or  2  lanceolate  bracts,  with  several  flowers  above,  in  a 
raceme:  lip  white,  spurred  at  base:  other  petals  purplish-pink,  arching  up 
over  the  flower.     Woods. 

4.  SPIRANTHES.     Ladies'  Tresses. 

Generally  characterized  by  small  flowers,  whitish,  yellowish  or  greenish- 
white,  bent  horizontally  and  arranged  in  1-3  rows  spirally  in  a  spike, 
appearing  as  if  twisted:  stem  usually  bearing  leaves  below,  or  at  the  base: 
lip  of  the  little  flowers  not  saccate  but  erect,  oblong,  recurved,  channelled, 
the  base  embracing  the  column  and  bearing  2  callous  protuberances:  anther 
1-2  celled:  1  powdery  pollen  mass  in  each  cell.     Several  species. 

S.  cernua,  Richard.  Six  to  20  in.  high,  having  leafy  bracts  with  the 
flowers;  spike  dense,  with  flowers  in  3  rows,  inflorescence  appearing  but 
slightly  twisted:  leaves  lance-linear.  Common  in  moist  meadows  and 
swamps.     Late  summer  and  early  autumn. 

S.  gracilis,  Bigelow.  Spike  and  scape  slender,  with  flowers  in  one 
straight  oi'  spiral  row:  leaves  all  radical,  ovate  to  oblong,  commonly  wither- 
ing away  at  or  before  flowering.  Common  in  dry  or  sandy  fields,  open  or 
billy  woods.    July  to  October. 

5.  G00D7£:RA.     Rattlesnake  Plantain. 

In  spike  and  perianth  similar  to  Spiranthes,  but  without  the  2  lateral 
callous  protuberances  on  the  lip:  leaves  basal,  tufted,  thickish,  petioled, 
dark-green,  usually  blotched  or  veined  with  white.  A  few  species  widely 
distributed,  but  not  common,  with  handsome  leaves.  The  genus  is  also 
known  as  Peramium. 


310  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

G.  CALOPOGON.     Grass  Pink. 

Scapes  from  round  solid  bulbs  bearing  several  flowers  in  loose  terminal 
spikes  or  racemes;  leaf  1,  grass-like.  Distinguished  b}-  having  the  lip  on 
the  upper  side  (ovary  or  stalk  not  twisting),  bearded. 

C.  pulch611u8,  R.  Br.  Scape  1  ft.  high,  2-6  flowered:  flowers  1  in.  across, 
pink-purple;  the  lip,  triangular  at  apex,  created  with  colored  hairs  (yellow, 
orange,  purple),  club-shaped:  anther  lid-like:  pollen-masses  4,  powdery. 
Wet  meadows  and  bogs.     Very  pretty. 

7.  POGONIA. 

Low,  with  solitary,  terminal,  odd  flowers;  alternate  leaves:  lip  spurless, 
crested  or  hooded  or  3-lobed;  column  not  attached:  calyx  spreading:  fertile 
anther  lid-liko:  two  pollen  masses,  granular. 

P.  ophioglossoides,  Nutt.  Stem  G-9  in.  from  a  fibrous  root;  leaf  sessile, 
oval  near  middle  of  stem:  lip  erect,  bearded  and  fringed:  flower  1  in. 
long,  sweet-scented,  pale  rose  color,  slightly  nodding,  with  a  leafy  bract. 
Marshes  or  swampy  places.    Eastern  United  States.    June  to  July. 


BB.     PHENOGAxMS:  ANGIOSPERMS:    DICOTYLEDONS. 
D.     CHORIPETALiE. 

IX.  CUPULIFER^.    Oak  Family. 

Monoecious  trees  and  shrubs  with  staminate  flowers  in  catkins 
and  the  fertile  in  catkins  or  solitary  :  Ivs.  alternate,  with  stipules 
early  deciduous  (mostly  scale-like),  and  the  side-veins  straight  or 
nearly  so:  stamens  2  to  many:  fruit  a  1-seed  nut,  sometimes  inclosed 
in  an  involucre.  Ten  or  a  dozen  genera  and  upwards  of  450  species. 
Representative  plants  are  oak,  chestnut,  beech,  birch,  hazel,  ironwood. 

A.  Sterile  flowers  in  a  hanging  head:  fruits  2  three-cornered 

nuts  in  a  small,  spiny  involucre  or  bur 1.  Fagus 

AA.  Sterile  flowers  in  cylindrical  catkins. 

B.  Fruit  1  to  4  rounded  or  flat-sided  nuts  in  a  large,  sharp- 
spiny  involucre  or  bur 2.  Castanea 

BB.  Fruit  an  acorn  — a  nut  sitting  in  a  scaly  or  spiny  cup 3.  Quercus 

BBB.  Fruit   flat   and    often  winged,  thin   and    seed-like,  borne 
under  scales  in  a  cone 

C.  Fertile  flowers  naked:  mature  cone-scales  thin 4.  Betula 

CO.  Fertile  flowers  with  a  calyx:  cone-scales  thick 5.  Alrms 

1.  FAGUS.     Beech. 

Tall  forest  trees  with  light  bark,  and  prominent  parallel  side-veins  in 
the  leaves:  sterile  flowers  in  a  small,  pendulous  head,  with  5-7-cleft  calyx 


CUPULIFEK^  311 

and  8-16  stamens:  fertile  flowers  2,  in  a  close  involucre,  ripening  into  2 
three-cornered  "beech  nuts"  in  a  4-valved  bur. 

F.  Americana,  Ait.  American  beech.  Close-grained,  hard-wood  tree, 
with  light  colored  bark:  leaves  ovate-oblong  and  acuminate,  coarsely  serrate, 
usually  with  9  or  more  pairs  of  nerves:  nuts  ripening  in  the  fall,  and  much 
sought  by  boys  and  squirrels.     A  common  forest  tree. 

r.  sylvdtica,  Linn.  A'urojieanbeecli.  Fig.  138.  Often  planted,  particularly 
in  the  form  of  the  Purple-leaved  and  Weeping  beech :  foliage  differs  in  being 
mostly  smaller,  ovate  or  elliptic,  small-toothed,  with  9  or  less  pairs  of  nerves. 

2.  CASTANEA.     Chestnut. 

Forest  trees,  with  rough,  furrowed  bark:  sterile  flowers  with  4-7-lobed 
calyx  and  8-20  stamens  in  very  long,  erect  or  spreading  catkins,  which 
appear  in  clusters  in  midsummer:  fertile  flowers  about  3  in  an  involucre, 
producing  "chestnuts  "  in  a  spiny  bur. 

C.  Americana,  Raf.  American  chestnut.  Fig.  241.  Tall,  straight- 
grained  tree,  with  large,  broad  and  thin,  oblong-lanceolate  leaves,  which  are 
taper-pointed,  and  have  large  teeth  with  spreading  spines :  nuts  usually  1  in. 
or  less  across,  sweet.     Grows  as  far  west  as  Mich.,  and  south  to  Miss. 

C.  sativa,  Mill.  European  chestnut.  Less  tall:  leaves  smaller  and 
narrower,  more  pubescent  when  young,  not  long-acuminate,  the  teeth  smaller 
and  their  spines  more  incurved:  nuts  1  in.  or  more  across,  not  so  sweet  as 
those  of  the  American  chestnut.     Europe.     Very  commonly  planted. 

3.  QUfiKCUS.     Oak. 

Strong,  close-grained  trees,  with  mostly  laterally-lobed  leaves:  sterile 
flowers  in  clustered  hanging  catkins,  with  a  4-7-lobed  calyx,  and  3-12  sta- 
mens: fertile  one  in  a  shallow  involucre  which  becomes  the  cup  of  the 
acorn,  the  stigma  3-]obed:  fruit  an  acorn.  See  Fig.  212,  which  represents 
the  English  oak  {Q.  Bobur)  often  planted  in  choice  grounds. 

a.  White  oak  group,  distinguished  by  its  light  gray  scaly  bark,  rounded 
lobes  or  teeth  of  the  leaves,  and  the  acorns  maturing  the  first  year. 
(Q.  virens  has  nearly  or  quite  entire  leaves.) 

Q.  dlba,  Linn.  White  oak.  Fig.  441.  Leaves  obovate,  5  or  6  inches 
long,  the  lobes  usually  7  and  at  equal  distances  apart,  and  the  sinuses 
deep  or  shallow  :  acorn  small,  with  a  rather  shal- 
low  and  not  fringed  cup.     The  commonest  ^ipccics.  5  ^ 


\L    w 


441.  Quereus  alba.  412.  Quercus  ia;icrocarp;i .  443.  Quercus  Prinus. 

Q.  macrocirpa,  Michx.      Bur  oak.      Fig.  442.      Leaves  obovate,  downy 
or  pale  on  the  lower  surface,  toothed  towards  the  tips  and  irregularly  and 


312 


THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 


often  deeply   lobed  toward  the  base:    acorn   cups   heavily  fringed  on  the 
margins :  young  branches  corky.     More  common  west. 

Q,  Prinus,  Linn.  Chestnut  oak.  Fig.  443.  Leaves  rather  long-obo- 
vate,  toothed,  with  rounded  teeth  and  yellow-ribbed:  acorn  long  and  the  cup 
hard-scaled:  bark  dark  with  broad,  deep  furrows.     Eastern. 


»,    s.^ 


444.  Quercus  bicolor.  445.  Quereus  rubr 


446.  Quercus  coccinea. 


Q.  bicolor,  Wilkl.  Swamp  wJiite  oak.  Fig.  444.  Leaves  obovate, 
white-downy  on  their  lower  surface,  toothed  with  squarish  teeth,  the  bases 
wedge-shaped:  acorn  small,  with  the  margin  of  the  cup  finely  fringed. 
Common  in  low  grounds  and  along  ravines. 

Q.  virens,  Ait.  I/ive  oak.  Leaves  small,  oblong,  entire  or  sometimes 
spiny-toothed,  thick  and  evergreen:  acorn  oblong,  the  nut  about  one-third 
covered  with  its  scaly  cup.     Virginia,  south. 

aa.    Blatk  oak  group,  distinguished  by  its  dark  furrowed  bark,  pointed  lobes 
of  the  leaves,  and  the  acorns  maturing  the  second  year. 
Q.  rilbra,  Linn.      Bed  oak.      Fig.  445.      Leaves  obovate  or  sometimes 
shorter,  the  7-9  lobes  triangular  and  pointing  toward  the  tips:  acorn  large, 
flat-cupped.     Common. 

Q.  coccinea,  Wang.      Scarlet  oak.      Fig.  446.      Leaves  obovate,   bright 
scarlet   in    autumn,  thin,  smooth    on   the  lower   surface,  the  sinuses    deep, 
wide,    and    rounded  :    margin    of    the    acorn    cup 
rounding  inwards  and  the  scales  close:  inner  bark 
reddish.     Common. 

Q.  tinctdria,  Bartr.  Black  oak.  Fig.  447. 
Leaves  obovate,  coarser,  downy  on  the  lower 
surface  until  midsummer  or  later,  wider  towards 
the  tip,  the  sinuses  shallow  (or  sometimes  as  in 
the  scarlet  oak):  margin  of  the  acorn  cup  not 
447.  Quercus  tinctoria.  ^o^^^'^^S  inwards  and  the  scales  looser:  inner 
bark  orange.  Common. 
4.  BfiTULA.     Birch. 

Small  to  medium-sized  trees,  with  sterile  flowers  in  drooping,  cylindrical 
catkins,  3  flowers  with  4  short  stamens  being  borne  under  each  bract:  fertile 
flowers  in  short,  mostly  erect  catkins  which  become  cones  at  maturity,  2  or  3 
naked  flowers  being  borne  under  each  3-lobed  bract:  fruit  winged  and  seed' 
lik«:  leftvas  simple,  toothed  or  serrate:  bark  often  aromatic. 


CUPULIFER^-UKTICACE^  313 

a.    Brown-barked  birches :   leaves  ovate. 

B.  16nta,  Linn.  Cherri/  birch.  Sweet  birch.  Tall  tree,  the  bark  tight 
(not  peeling  in  layers),  the  twigs  very  aromatic:  leaves  oblong-ovate,  some- 
what cordate  at  base,  doubly  serrate,  becoming  glossy  above:  bracts  of  the 
oblong-cylindric  fruiting  catkins  with  wide-spreading  lobes.     Rich  woods. 

B.  Idtea,  Michx.  Yellow  or  gray  birch.  Bark  grayer  or  silvery,  peel- 
ing in  layers:  leaves  scarcely  cordate,  dull,  more  downy:  bracts  of  the 
short-oblong  fruiting  catkins  with  scarcely  spreading  scales:  tree  less  aro- 
matic than  the  other.     Same  range. 

aa.     White-barked  birches:  leaves  triangular  or  broad-ovate. 

B.  papyrifera,  Marsh.  Paper  birch.  Canoe  birch.  Tree  of  medium 
to  rather  large  size,  with  the  bark  peeling  in  very  large  plates  or  layers: 
leaves  broad-ovate  and  often  somewhat  cordate,  dull  green.     Penn.,  north. 

B.  populifdlia,  Ait.  American  ivhite  birch.  Small  and  slender  tree  with 
rather  tight,  glistening,  white  bark:  leaves  triangular-acuminate,  toothed, 
dangling,  and  moving  incessantly  in  the  wind.     Northeastern  states. 

B.  dlba,  Linn.  European  white  birch.  A  larger  tree,  with  triangular- 
ovate  leaves  which  are  pointed  but  not  long-acuminate.  Europe;  the  com- 
mon cultivated  white  birch. 

5.  ALNUS.     Alder. 

Much  like  Betula,  but  smaller  trees  or  bushes:  flowers  with  a  3-5- 
parted  calyx,  and  the  small,  short,  fertile  catkins  composed  of  thickened, 
woody  scales.  In  the  following,  the  flowers  appear  before  the  leaves  in 
earliest  spring,  from  catkins  formed  the  previous  year  and  remaining  partly 
developed  during  winter.     Common  along  streams. 

A.  inc^na,  Willd.  Speckled  alder.  Shrub  or  small  tree,  with  pubescent 
branches:  leaves  oval  to  oblong-ovate,  acute,  doubly  serrate,  glaucous  and 
downy  underneath:  cones  about  }4  i°-  long,  mostly  sessile. 

A.  rugdsa,  Spreng.  (A.  serrulata,  Willd.).  Smooth  alder.  Leaves 
elliptic  or  obovate,  acute  or  rounded  at  the  apex,  finely  serrate,  the  under  side 
of  the  leaves  smooth  or  pubescent  only  on  the  veins:  cones  short-stalked. 

A.  glutindsa,  Gaertn.  Black  alder.  Leaves  orbicular  or  very  broadly 
obovate,  not  acute,  irregularly  serrate,  dull  and  nearly  smooth  beneath: 
cones  peduncled.     Europe;  planted,  some  varieties  with  divided  leaves. 


X.  UKTICACE^.     Nettle  Family. 

Trees  and  herbs,  with  small  apetalous  flowers  in  small  clusters  or 
solitary:  leaves  mostly  straight-veined,  with  stipules,  plants  dioecious 
or  monoecious,  or  flowers  perfect  in  the  elms:  stamens  usually  as  many 
as  the  lobes  of  the  calyx  and  opposite  them:  ovary  superior,  ripening 
into  a  1 -seeded  indehiscent,  often  winged  fruit.  A  very  polymorphous 
association,  by  some  botanists  divided  into  two  or  three  coordinate 


14 


THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 


families.     More  than  100  genera  and  1500  species.     Eepresentatives 
are  elm,  hackberry,  mulberry,  osage  orange,  nettle,  hop,  hemp. 

A.  Trees. 

B.  Fruit  a  samara 1 .  Ulmus 

BB.  Fruit  a  small  drupe 2.  Celtis 

BBB.  Fruit  as  large  as  an  orange,  formed  of  the  whole  mass  of 

the  pistillate  flower-cluster 3.  ToxyJon 

BBBB.  Fruit  resembling  a  blackberry,  formed  of  the   pistillate 

flower-cluster 4.  Morus 

AA.  Herbs. 

B.  Leaves  digitately  lobed  or  divided. 

C.  Plant  standing  erect 5.  Cannabis 

cc.  Plant  twining 6.  ffumulus 

Bb.  Leaves  not  lobed :  plant  with  stinging  hairs 7.  Urtica 

\.  tLMUS.     Elm. 

Trees,  mostly  large  and  valuable  for  timber,  with  rough-furrowed  bark: 
leaves  alternate  (2-ranked),  ovate  and  straight-veined,  dentate:  flowers  small 
and  not  showy,  appearing  in  earliest  spring,  sometimes  diclinous,  the  calyx 
4-9-parted,  the  anthers  4-9  on  long  filaments:  ovary  generally  2-loculed, 
ripening  into  a  1-seeded  wing-fruit. 

a   Leaves  large,  roitgh  on  the  upper  surface:  fruit  large,  nearly  orbicular. 

U.  fiilva,  Michx.     Slippery  elm.    Fig.  448.     Middle-sized  or  small  tree 

with  inner  bark  mucilaginous  or  "  slippery "  in  spring:  leaves  6-8  in.  long 

and  half  or  more  as  broad,  ovate  elliptic  and  unequal-sided,  doubly  serrate, 


448.  Ubnus  fulva. 


449.  Ulmus  Americana. 


450.  Ulmus  racemosa. 


very  rough  above  and  softer  beneath:  samara  ]4-%  in.  long,  orbicular  or 
nearly  so,  with  the  seed  in  the  center:  flowers  in  dense  clusters.  Common, 
aa.  Leaves  not  very  rough  above:  fruit  oval,  deeply  notched  at  the  apex. 
IT.  Americd,na,  Linn.  Common  or  white  elm .  Figs.  91-95, 146, 449.  Tall  and 
graceful  tree:  leaves  elliptic-oval,  serrate:  samara  small,  more  or  less  hairy 
on  the  thin  wing,  the  notch  in  the  apex  extending  nearly  to  the  seed:  flowers 
banging  on  slender  stalks.     One  of  the  finest  of  American  trees. 


URTIOACE^ 


315 


V.  racemdsa,  Thomas.  Cork  elm.  Fig.  450.  Smaller  tree  than  the  last, 
with  corky-winged  branches  :  leaves  with  straighter  veins:  samara  with 
sharp  incurved  points  at  the  apex:  flowers  in  i-acemes.     Less  common. 

XT.  ald,ta,  Michx.  Wahoo  elm.  Small  tree,  with  wide,  corky  ridges  on 
the  branches:  leaves  small  and  rather  thick,  almost  sessile,  ovate  to  nearly 
lanceolate  and  acute:  samara  downy,  at  least  when  young.  Virginia,  south 
and  west. 

2.  CflLTIS.    Nettle-Tree.    Hackbeery. 

Elm-like  in  looks,  but  the  fruit  a  1-seeded,  berry-like  drupe:  flowers 
greenish,  in  the  leaf  axils,  mostly  diclinous;  calyx  5-6-parted;  stamens  5  or 
6:  stigmas  2,  very  long. 

C.  occident^lis,  Linn.  Common  hackberry .  Middle-sized  tree  with 
rough- furrowed  bark:  leaves  ovate-pointed,  oblique  at  base,  serrate:  fruit 
purplish,  as  large  as  a  pea,  edible  in  the  fall  when  ripe.     Low  grounds. 

3.  TOXYLON.     Osage  Orange. 

Small  tree,  with  dioecious  flowers  in  catkins,  and  alternate,  simple 
leaves:  sterile  flowers  in  raceme-like,  deciduous  catkins  :  fertile  flowers 
densely  crowded  in  a  head,  with  4  sepals  and  2  stigmas,  the  ovary  ripening 
into  an  akene,  the  whole  flower-cluster  becom- 
ing fleshy  and  ripening  into  an  orange-like 
mass. 

T.  pomifenim,  Raf.  (Madura  aurantiaca, 
Nutt.).  Osage  orange.  Fig.  451.  Spiny,  low 
tree,  much  used  for  hedges,  but  not  hardy  in 
the  northernmost  states:  leaves  narrow-ovate  and  entire,  glossy:  flowers 
in  spring  after  the  leaves  appear,  the  fruit  ripening  in  autumn.  Mo. 
and  Kan.,  south. 

4.  MORUS.     Mulberry. 

Small  to  middle-sized  trees,  with  broad,  alternate  toothed  or  lobed 
leaves  and  monoecious  flowers,  with  4-parted  calyx:  stamens  4,  with  fila- 
ments at  first  bent  inward,  the  staminate  catkins  soon  falling:  fertile  flow- 
ers ripening  a  single  akene,  but  the  entire  catkin  become 
fleshy  and  blackberry-like,  and  prized  for  eating. 
Leaves  very  variable,  often  lobed  and  not  lobed  on  the 
same  branch. 

M.  rtibra,  Linn.  Common  wild  mulberry.  Often 
a  large  tree  in  the  south  :  leaves  ovate-acuminate, 
oblique  at  the  base,  rough  and  dull  on  the  upper  surface 
and  softer  beneath,  dentate:  fruit  %  in.  to  1  in.  long, 
black-red,  sweet.  Wood  yellow.  Most  abundant  south, 
hut  growing  as  far  north  as  Mass. 

M.  Alba,  Linn.  WTiite  mulberry.  Fig.  452.  Leaves 
light  green  and  usually  glossy  above,  the  veins  prominent  and  whitish  beneath, 
the  teeth  usually  rounded  or  obtuse:  fruit  of  variable  size,  often  1%  in.  long, 
whitish,  violet,  or  purple.  China;  planted  for  ornament  and  for  its  fruit,  also 
<or  feeding  silkworms.    The  much-planted  Russian  Mulberry  is  a  form  of  it. 


451.  Toxylou  pomifer 


452.  Moms  alba. 


316  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

5.  CANNABIS.     Hemp. 

Tall,  strong,  dioecious  herbs  with  5  to  7  leaflets:  fertile  flowers  in  clus- 
ters, with  1  sepal  surrounding  the  ovary,  and  2  long,  hairy  stigmas:  sterile 
flowers  in  racemes  or  panicles,  with  5  sepals  and  5  drooping  stamens. 

C.  sativa,  Linn.  Hemp.  Six  to  10  ft.,  strong-smelling,  blooming  all 
summer:  leaflets  lanceolate,  large  toothed.  Old  World;  cultivated  for  fiber 
and  sometimes  escaped  in  waste  places. 

6.  HtMULUS.     Hop. 

Twining  dioecious  herbs  of  tall  growth,  with  5  sepals  in  the  sterile 
flowers,  the  stamens  erect:  fertile  flowers  with  1  sepal,  2  flowers  under  each 
scale  of  a  short,  thin  catkin  which  becomes  a  kind  of  cone  or  "  hop." 

H.  Lilpulus,  Linn.  Common  hop.'  Perennial,  rough -hairy:  leaves  broad- 
ovate,  deeply  3-lobed  (only  rarely  5-7-lobed) :  sterile  flowers  in  panicles 
2-6  in.  long:  pistillate  catkin  enlarging  into  a  "hop"  often  2  in.  or  more 
long.     A  native  plant,  cultivated  for  hops  and  sometimes  for  ornament. 

H.  Jap6nicU8,  Sieb.  &  Zuec.  Japanese  hop.  Fig.  107.  Annual:  leaves 
not  less  than  5-lobed :  fertile  catkin  not  enlarging  into  a  hop.  Japan;  much 
cultivated  for  ornament. 

7.  tRTICA.     Nettle. 

Erect  herbs  with  opposite  simple  leaves  and  stinging  hairs,  and  mon- 
oecious or  dioecious  flowers  in  racemes  or  dense  clusters,  the  calyx  of  4 
separate  sepals:  stamens  4:  stigma  sessile:  fruit  an  ovate  flat  akene.  The 
following  are  perennials  with  flowers  in  panicled  spikes. 

U.  gracilis,  Ait.  Common  nettle.  Two  to  G  ft. :  leaves  ovate-lanceolate, 
serrate,  on  long  petioles.     Common  in  low  grounds. 

U.  dibica,  Linn.  Not  so  tall:  leaves  ovate-cordate  and  deeply  serrate,  on 
rather  short  petioles,  downy  underneath.    Weed  from  Europe,  very  stinging. 

XI.    AKISTOLOCHIACE^. 
BiRTHWORT  Family.     Dutchman's  Pipe  Family. 

Low  aeaulescent  herbs,  or  tall  twining  vines :  leaves  basal  or  alter- 
nate, without  stipules,  petiolate,  roundish  or  kidney-shnped:  flowers 
regular  or  irregular,  perfect:  perianth-tube  brown  or  dull,  valvate  in 
bud,  adherent  to  ovary:  stamens  6-12,  epigynous,  and  adherent  to 
base  of  the  styles:  ovary  6-celled,  pistil  1.  A  small  family  of  about  200 
species,  sparingly  represented  in  this  country.  Many  of  the  members 
have  aromatic  or  bitter-tonic  properties. 

A.  Low  stemless  herbs 1.  Asariim 

aa.  Leafy-stemmed  herbs,  or  woody  climbers 2.  Aristolochia 

I.  ASARUM.     Wild  Ginger. 

Perennial   spreading   herbs:    leaves    large,    kidney-shaped,    pubescent: 


AKIRTOLOCHIACE.E — POLYGONACE^  317 

flower  brown,  iuconspli'uous,  borne  on  a  short  peduncle  arising  from  lietween 
the  petioles:  rootstocks  creeping,  elongated,  very  aromatic. 

A.  Canadense,  Linn.  Leaves  in  pairs,  large,  reniform,  but  more  or  less 
pointed  at  tip,  soft-hairy  with  a  silky  finish:  flower  greenish  outside, 
purple-brown  within,  consisting  of  a  '!-lobed  calyx,  adnate  to  ovary: 
stamens  12,  the  tilanients  longer  than  the  anthers.  Common  in  rich  woods. 
April,  May. 

2.  ARISTOLOCHIA.     Dutchman's  Pipe. 

Herbs  or  tall  vines,  with  alternate,  petiolate  leaves,  cordate,  entire 
and  palmately  nerved:  flowers  irregular,  the  calyx  tubular,  the  lube  oddly 
inflated  above  ovary  and  contracted  at  throat,  shaped  like  a  much-bent 
pipe,  the  margin  reflexed  or  spreading,  3-6-Iobed  or  appendaged:  sta- 
mens 6. 

A.  macrophylla,  Lam.  (.4.  Siplio,  L'Her.)  Calyx-tube  about  1-1%  in. 
long,  curved  to  resemble  a  Dutch  pipe,  the  margin  spreading,  brownish- 
purple:  leaves  large,  smooth,  dark  green,  round  kidney-shaped.  Wild  in 
rich  woods;   May;  often  cultivated. 

XII.   POLYGONACEJi:.     Buckwheat  Family. 

Herbs,  mostly  veith  enlarged  joints  or  nodes  and  sheaths  (repre- 
senting stipules)  above  them  :  leaves  simple  and  usually  entire, 
alternate  :  flowers  small,  apetalous,  usually  perfect  and  generally 
borne  in  spikes  or  dense  clusters  :  stamens  4-12,  attached  to  the 
very  base  of  the  3-5-merous  calyx  :  ovary  1-loculed,  ripening  into  a 
3-4- angled  akene.  Thirty  or  more  genera  and  about  600  widely  dis- 
persed species.  Characteristic  plants  are  buckwheat,  rhubarb,  dock, 
sorrel,  smartwsed. 

A.  Root-leaves  1  ft.  or  more  across,  rounded 1.  Jilieum 

AA.  Root-leaves  narrow  or  not  prominent. 

B.  Calyx  of  6  sepals,  often  of  two  kinds 2.  Bumex 

BB.  Calyx  of  5  (rarely  4)  sepals,  all  alike. 

C.  Flowers  white  and  fragrant .3.  Fagopyrutn 

cc.  Flowers  greenish  or  pinkish,  not  distinctly  fragrant. 4.  Polygonum 

1.  EHl:UM.     Rhl'bakb. 

Very  large-leaved  perennials,  sending  up  stout  hollow  flower-stalks  in 
early  summer  which  bear  smaller  leaves  with  sheathing  bases:  sepals  G,  all 
alike,  withering  rather  than  falling,  and  persisting  beneath  the  3-winged 
akens:  stamens  9:  styles  .3.     Old  World. 

R.  Rhap6nticum,  Linn.  lihuhnrb.  Pie-pJaut.  Figs.  78,  79.  Leav<»s 
1  ft.  or  more  across,  the  thick  petioles  eaten:  fls.  white,  in  elevated 
panicles. 


318 


THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 


2.  RtTMEX.     Dock.     Sorrel. 

Perennial  often  deep-rooted  plants  with  herbage  bitter  or  sour:  sepals  6, 
the  3  outer  large  and  spreading,  the  3  inner  (kn»wn  as  "valves")  enlarging 
after  flowering  and  one  or  more  of  them  often  bearing  a  grain-like  tubercle 
on  the  back:  stamens  6, styles  3:  flowers  in  pan- 
icles or  interrupted  spikes. 

a.    Docks:    herbage  hitter :    valves  often  grain- 
hearing :    floivers  mostly  perfect :    leaves 
not  arroiv -shaped. 
R,  obtusifdlius,  Linn.  Bitter  dock.   Lower  leaves 
long-cordate    and    obtuse,   not   wavy:    one  valve 
usually  grain-bearing.     Weed  from   Europe. 

R.  crispus,  Linn.     Curly  dock.     Leaves  lanceo- 
late, wavy  or  curled:  all  valves  usually  grain-bear- 
453.  Rumex  Acetosella.    ing.     Weed  from  Europe. 

aa.    Sorrels:  herbage  sotir:  valves  not  grain-bearing:  flowers  dioecious: 
leaves  arrow-shaped. 
R.  Acetos611a,  Linn.     Common  or   sheep   sorrel.     Fig.  453.     Low  (1  ft. 
or  less):  leaves  mostly  arrow-shaped  at  base:  flow- 
ers brownish,  small,  in  a  terminal  panicle.     Common 
in  sterile  fields.     Europe. 

3.  FAGOPtRUM.     Buckwheat. 

Fast-growing  annuals,  with  somewhat  triangu- 
lar leaves,  and  fragrant  flowers  in  flattish,  panicle- 
like clusters:  calyx  of  5  parts:  stamens  8:  fruit  a 
triangular  akene.     Old  World. 

F.  escul^ntum,  Moench.  Common  hucktvheat. 
Fig.  454.  Leaves  triangular-arrow-shaped,  long-peti- 
oled:  flowers  white,  in  a  compound  cluster:  akene 
with  regular  angles.     Flour  is  made  from  the  grain. 

F.   Tatdricum,    Gaertn.       India    ivheat.      Slen- 
derer,   the   leaves   smaller   and   more  arrow-shaped 
and  short-petioled:  flowers  greenish  or  yellowish,  in  simple  racemes:  akene 
notched  on  the  angles.     Somewhat  cultivated. 

4.  POL'tGONUM.     Knotweed.     Smartweed. 

Low  weedy  plants,  or  some  exotic  ones  tall  and  cultivated,  blooming  in 
summer  and  fall,  the  small  pinkish  or  greenish  flowers  mostly  in  racemes  or 
spikes  (in  the  Knotweeds  in  the  leaf -axils) :  calyx  usually  5-parted:  stamens 
4-9:  stigmas  2  or  3:  black  akene  lenticular  or  triangular. 

a.    Knotweeds:  flowers  sessile  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  greenish  and 
very  small. 
P.  avicul&re,  Linn.     Common  knotweed.      Dcorweed.     Fig.  193.     Pros- 
trate or  creeping,  bluish  green  wiry  plant,  growing  along  the  hard  edges  of 


454. 
Fagopyrum  esculentum. 


POLYGONACE.E — EUPHOEBIACE^ 


319 


walks  and  in  yards,  and  commonly  mistaken  for  sod:  leaves  small,  mostly 
oblong,  entire:  sepals  very  small,  green  with  a  broad  white  margin:  sta- 
mens 5  or  more:   stigmas  usually  3.     Annual. 

P.  er6ctum,  Linn.    Taller  knotivecd.    One  ft.  or  more  high: 

leaves  three  or  four  times  larger,  oblong  or  oval  and  obtuse. 

Common  annual. 

aa.  Smartweeds;  flowers  in  terminal  spikes,  mostly  pinkish. 
b.  Sheaths  of  leaves  (surrounding  stem)  hairy  on  the 

edge,  or  the  margin  with  a  spreading  border, 
P.  orientals,  Linn.     Prince's   feather.     Several  feet  tall, 
soft-hairy:   flowers  in  long  cylindrical  nodding  spikes:  leaves 
ovate:    stamens  7.    India;    cultivated.     Annual. 

P.  Persicaria,  Linn.  Smartweed.  Lady's  thumb  (from  the 
dark  blotch  near  the  center  of  the  leaf).  Fig.  455.  About  1  ft. : 
leaves  lanceolate:  spikes  oblong,  dense  and  erect:  stamens 
usually  6:  stigmas  2.     Weed  from  Europe. 

P.  Hydropiper,  Linn.    Smartweed.    Herbage  very  pungent 
or"smarty:"  leaves  oblong-lanceolate:  spikes  short  and  nod- 
ding,   the   flowers    greenish  :    stamens    6:    stigmas    3.     Low 
455  grounds.     Annual. 

Polygonum  ^-   iiydropiperoides,    Michx.      Smartweed.      Herbage    not 

Persicaria.     pungent:   spikes  slender  and  erect,  the  flowers  whitish:   sta- 
mens 8:   stigmas  3.     In  very  wet  places.     Perennial. 
P.  &cre,  HBK.     Smartweed.     Herbage  pungent:   leaves  linear  or  lanceo- 
late, long-pointed:    spikes  slender  and  erect:  flowers  white  or  blush:   sta- 
mens 8:  stigmas  3.     Low  grounds.     Perennial. 

bb.    Sheaths  of  leaves  not  hairy,  nor  the  margin  bordered. 
P.  Pennsylvdnicum,  Linn.    Smartweed.    Pungent:  plant  with  conspicuous 
glandular  hairs  above :  leaves  lanceolate :  spikes  short-oblong  and  erect,  the 
flowers  purplish:  stamens  8:   stigmas  2.     Low  ground.     Annual. 


XIII.    EUPHORBIACE.E.     Spurge  Family, 


Trees,  shrubs  or  herbs,  often  with  milky,  pungent  juice,  some- 
times poisonous:  flowers  monoecious  or  dioecious,  mostly  apetalous, 
usually  small  and  inconspicuous.  The  family  is  large,  in  warmer 
parts  of  the  world.  The  determination  of  the  genera  and  species  is 
difficult.     Euphorbia  and  Rieinus  will  explain  the  flower  structure. 

A.  Flowers  in  a  cup-like  involucre,  wliich  imitates  a  perianth: 

flowers  dioecious,  without  calyx  or  corolla 1.  Euphorbia 

AA.  Flowers  dioecious,  not  in  an  involucre,  but  in  a  terminal 

panicle:  calyx  present,  but  no  corolla 2.  Rieinus 


320  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

).  EUPHORBIA.     Spurge. 

Flowers  monoecious  enclosed  in  au  involucre,  which  is  4-5  lobed  and 
often  showj',  resembling  a  perianth:  starainate  flowers  each  consisting  of 
a  stamen  jointed  to  filament-like  pedicel,  subtended  by  a  minute  bract, 
attached  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  involucre:  the  solitary  pistillate  flower, 
standing  at  tlie  bottom  of  the  involucre,  is  at  length  protruded  on  a  stalk: 
capsule  3-lobed  and  3  celled:  styles  3,  each  2-cleft:  stigmas  6.  Many  of  the 
species  are  cultivated  for  ornamental  purposes,  as  E.  splendens,  Crown  of 
Thorns;  £.  Cyparissias,  Cypress  Spurge. 

E.  corollata,  Linn.  Flowering  spurge.  Perennial,  2-3  ft.,  slender- 
branclied:  leaves  mostly  alternate,  or  the  uppermost  ones,  or  those  on 
the  branches  opposite,  whorled,  oval,  rather  thick,  usually  pale  beneath: 
flowering  branches  much  forked:  involucres  terminal,  or  on  peduncles,  from 
the  forks  of  the  branches,  the  lobes  snowy  white,  appearing  like  petals  with 
oblong  yellowish-green  glands  at  base  of  each.  In  drj'  or  sandy  soil, 
common.     July  to  October. 

E.  maculata,  Linn.  Small  plant,  prostrate  or  spreading,  the  branches 
slender  and  radiating,  dark  green,  often  dark  red:  leaves  oblong-linear, 
usually  with  red-brQwn  spots  in  centre:  involucre  minute,  the  corolla-like 
appendages  narrow,  white  or  red.  A  common  inconspicuous  weed  through- 
out North  America,  except  the  extreme  north. 

E.  pulch6rrima,  Willd.  Poinsettia.  Floralleaves  brilliant  red:  flowers 
in  a  greenish  involucre,  with  a  large  yellow  gland  on  sujnmit.  A  Mexican 
species,  well  known  as  an  ornamental  greenhouse  plant. 

2.  FtCINUS.     Castor-oil  Plant.     Figs.  288,  289,  290. 

Tall  stately,  perennial  heib  (annual  N.),with  large,  alternate,  palmately- 
cleft  leaves:  flowers  monoecious,  apetalous,  greenish,  in  terminal  racemes 
or  panicled  clusters,  the  pistillate  flowers  above  the  others;  styles  large, 
reddish. 

B.  commiinis,  Linn.  Caxtor  bean.  Palma  Christi.  Stem  erect  from 
3-12  ft.,  somewhat  branched:  leaves  very  large,  peltate,  lobes  acute, 
pointed,  toothed:  seeds  smooth,  black,  mottled  or  variegated  with  gray  and 
brown.     Grown  for  medicinal  and  ornamental  purposes.     Tropical. 


XIV.    CARYOPHYLLACE^.     Fink  Family. 

Herbs,  with  opposite,  mostly  narrow,  entire  leaves  without  conspic- 
uous veins:  flowers  4-5-merous,  sometimes  apetalous,  with  stamens 
twice  or  less  the  nutnber  of  sepals  or  petals,  and  2  to  5  styles  which 
may  be  wholly  separate  or  partially  united:  pod  usually  a  1-loculed 
capsule  commonly  inclosed  in  the  calyx,  mostly  splitting  from  the 
top,  the  seeds  usually  attached  to  a  central  column.  Genera  between 
30   and   40,    species   about   1,000.     Representative   plants   are   pink, 


CARYOPHYLLACE^  321 

carnation,  bouncing   Bet,  catchfly,  chickweed,  corn-cockle,  lychnis, 
Bpurry. 

A.   Flowers  polypetalous,  with  sepals  united  into  a  tube. 

B.    Bracts  at  tlie  base  of  tbe  calyx   1.  Dianthus 

BB.  No  bracts  at  base  of  calyx. 

c.  Styles  2 2.  Saponaria 

CO.  Styles  4  to  5 3.   Lychnis 

ccc.  Styles  3 4.   Silene 

AA.   Flowers  often  apetalous,  the  sepals  nearly  or  quite  distinct. 

B.  Styles  3  or  4 5.   ShUaria 

BB.   Stjies  5 6.   Cerastium 

1.  DIANTHUS.     Pink. 

Showy-flowered  small  herbs,  with  striate,  many-furrowed  calyx  and 
sepal-like  bracts  at  its  base:  petals  with  slender  claws  or  bases,  the  limb 
usuafly  toothed  or  fringed :  styles  2. 

a.  Flowers  single  on  ends  of  branches. 

D.  Chin^nsis,  Linn.  China  or  florists'  pink.  Leaves  short-lanceolate, 
not  Rrass-like:  calyx-bracts  linear-acute  and  as  long  as  the  calyx:  petals  in 
white  and  shades  of  red,  very  showy.  China.  Perennial,  but  grown  as  an 
annual  (mostly  under  the  florists'  name  D.  Heddewigi). 

D.  plum^rius,  Linn.  Grass  or  Scotch  pink.  Common  pink 
of  old  gardens,  from  Europe.  Low,  growing  in  mats,  glau- 
cous-blue :  leaves  grass-like  :  flowers  very  fragrant,  deep- 
fringed,  white  or  pink.     Perennial. 

D.  Caryophyllus,  Linn.  Carnation.  Two  ft.  or  more,  with 
wiry  stems,  glaucous-blue  :  leaves  grass  like:  calyx-bracts 
short  and  broad :  petals  more  or  less  toothed  but  not  fringed : 
flowers  fragrant.     Europe. 

aa.  Flowers  in  compact  clusters. 

D.  barbitus,  Linn.     Sweet    William.      Fig.  456.     One  ft.  /^-::^-^Z 

or  more,  erect,  green:  flowers  small,  in  dense  clusters  in  red /^" 

and  white.     Old  World:   common  in  old  gardens.  .-„  V. 

"  4o6.  Diantlms 

2.  SAPONARIA.     SOAPWORT.  barbatus. 

Calyx  cylindrical  or  angled,  5-toothed,  with  no  bracts  at  its  base: 
stamens  i^:  styles  2:  pod  4-toothed  at  top  (Fig.  250). 

S.  oHicin&.lis,  Linn.  Bouncing  Bet.  Perennial,  forming  colonies  in  old 
yards  and  along  roads,  1-2  ft.  high,  glabrous,  with  ovate  or  oval  leaves: 
flowers  1  in.  across,  white  or  rose,  in  dense  clusters,  often  double,  the 
petals  with  a  crown.     Europe.     Common. 

3.  Lt'CHNIS.     Lychnis.    Cockle. 

Annual  or  perennial,  with  styles  usually  5,  and  pod  opening  by  5  or  more 
teeth:  calyx  5-toothed  and  10-  or  more-nerved,  naked  at  the  base:  stamens  10. 

u 


'f 


322  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

L.  Githilgo,  Scop,  (or  Agrostemma  Githago,  Linn.).  Corn  cockle, 
because  it  is  a  common  weed  in  wheat  fields  (wheat  is  known  as  corn  in 
Europe),  its  seeds  not  being  readily  separated  from  wheat  because  of 
tlieir  similar  size  and  its  seasons  corresponding  with  those  of  wlieat: 
annual,  2-.T  ft.,  hairy:  fiowers  purple-red  and  showy,  on  very  long  stalks, 
the  petals  crowned  and  the  calyx-lobes  long  and  leafy:  leaves  very  narrow. 
Europe. 

L.  Coron^ria,  Desv.  Dusty  miller.  Mullein  pink.  Biennial  or  per- 
ennial, white-woolly  all  over:  leaves  oblong:  flowers  rose-crimson,  showy, 
Europe.     Old  gardens  and  along  roads. 

4.  SIL£N£.     Campion.     Catchfly. 

Annual  or  perennial,  herbs,  with  white,  pink,  or  red  flowers,  solitary  or 
in  cymes:  calyx  often  inflated,  5-toothed,  10-  to  many-nerved,  with  no 
bracts  at  base:  petals  5,  clawed,  sometimes  with  crown  or  scale  at  base  of 
blade:  stamens  10:  styles  3  (rarely  4  or  5) :  ovary  1-celled  (or  incompletely 
2-4-celled):  fruit  a  capsule,  or  pod,  1-celled  or  3-celled  at  base,  dehiscent  by 
3  or  G  teeth  at  apex,  many-seeded.  A  viscid  secretion  covers  the  calyx  and 
stems  of  certain  species,  by  which  creeping  insects  are  caught,  whence  the 
name,  "catchfly." 

S.  Btell&ta,  Ait.  Starry  campion.  Perennial,  2-3  ft.  high:  leaves  ovate- 
lanceolate,  acuminate,  in  whorls  of  4,  (at  least  the  upper  ones):  flowers  in 
panicled  cymes,  calyx  bell-shaped,  loose  and  inflated:  petals  fringed, 
crownless,  white.     July,  open  woods. 

S.  Cucilbalus,  Wibel.  Bladder  campion.  Perennial,  1-2  ft.:  leaves 
ovate  lanceolate,  acute,  opposite:  flowers  in  panicles,  inclined  or  drooping: 
calyx  globular,  thin  and  much  inflated,  conspicuously  veined:  petals  2-cIeft, 
white.  Roadsides,  fields  and  waste  places.  Common  eastward.  Natural- 
ized from  Europe. 

8.  Fennsylvdnica,  Michx.  Wild  pink.  Perennial,  viscid-pubescent 
above,  4-10  in.:  I)rtsal  leaves  spatulate  or  cuneate,  narrowed  into  petioles; 
stem  leaves  lanceolate,  sessile,  opposite:  flowers  in  terminal,  few-flowered 
eymes:  calyx  narrow:  petals  wedge-shaped,  slightly  emarginate  (or  eroded) 
on  edge,  pink-red,  crowned.     In  dry  soil  in  eastern  states. 

S.  Virginica,  Linn.  Fire  pink.  Perennial,  1-8  ft.:  lower  leaves  thin, 
spatulate,  the  cauline  oblong  or  lanceolate,  sessile:  flowers  few  in  a  loose 
cyme,  peduncled,  showy,  1^2-2  in.  broad:  calyx  bell-like,  enlarged  as  pod 
matures:  petals  2-cleft,  crowned,  bright  crimson:  stem  viscid-pubescent. 
Open,  dry  woods.     May-Sept. 

S.  noctifldra,  Linn.  Niglit-flowe>ing  catchfly.  Annual:  lower  leaves 
spatulate  or  obovate,  the  upper  linear:  flowers  large,  few,  pedicelled, 
in  loose  panicle,  opening  at  dusk  for  the  night:  very  fragrant:  calyx-tube 
elongated,  noticeably  veined,  with  awl-like  teoth :  petals  2-cleft;  white, 
crowned.    Weed  introduced  from  Europe.    July-Sept. 


CARYOPHYLLACE^— RANUNCULACE^  323 

5.  STELLARIA.     Chickweed. 

Small,  weak  herbs  with  sepals  4-5,  petals  of  equal  number  and  deeply 
cleft  or  sometimes  wanting:  stamens  10  or  less:  styles  usually  3:  pod 
opening  by  twice  as  many  valves  as  there  are  styles. 

S.  media,  Smith.  Common  chickweed.  Fig.  457.  Little  prostrate 
annual,  making  a  mat  in  cultivated  grounds,  with  ovate  or  oblong  leaves 
mostly  on  hairy  petioles:  flowers  solitary,  minute,  white,  the  2-parted  petals 
shorter  than  the  calyx,  the  peduncle  elongating  in  fruit. 
Europe:    very  common.     Blooms  in  cold  weather. 

G.  CERASTIUM,  Mouse-eak  Cnit.KVk'EED. 

Differs  from  Stellaria  chiefly  in  having  5  styles  and 
pod  splitting  into  twice  as  many  valves.  The  two  fol- 
lowing gray  herbs  grow  in  lawns.     From  Europe. 

C.viscdsum,  Linn.    Annual,  about  6  in.  high:  leaves        \^:i_0^ 
ovate  to  spatulate:   flowers  small,  in  close  clusters,  the    ""T"     "^      "" 
petals  shorter  than  the  calyx,  and  the  pedicels  not  longer    CO 
than  the  acute  sepals.  457.   Stellaria  media. 

C.  vulgd,tum,  Linn.  Perennial  and  larger,  clammy-hairy:  leaves  oblong: 
pedicels  longer  than  the  obtuse  sepals,  the  flowers  larger. 


XV.    RANUNCULACE^.    Crowfoot,  or  Buttercup,  Family. 

Mostly  herbs,  with  various  habits  and  foliage:  parts  of  the  flower 
typically  all  present,  free  and  distinct,  but  there  are  some  apetalous 
and  dicEcious  species:  stamens  many:  pistils  many  or  few,  in  the 
former  case  becoming  akenes  and  in  the  latter  usually  becoming  folli- 
cles. Upwards  of  30  genera  and  1,000  to  1,200  species.  Characteristic 
plants  are  buttercup,  anemone,  meadow-rue,  marsh-marigold  or 
cowslip,  adonis,  clematis,  larkspur,  aconite,  columbine,  baneberry, 
peony.    Known  from  Rosacete  by  the  hypogynous  flowers. 

A.  Herbs:  not  climbing. 

B.  Fruits  akenes,  several  or  many  from  each  flower, 
c.  True  petals  none,  but  the  sepals  petal-like   (and 
involucre  often  simulating  a  calyx). 
D.  Penduneles  1-flowered,  or  fls.  in  umbels. 

E.  Involucre  of  2  or  more  Ivs.  some  distance 

below  the  flower 1.  Anemone 

EE.  Involucre  of  3  sepal-like  leaves  close  to  the 

flower 2.  Bepatica 

EEE.  Involucre  of  3  compound  Ivs.,  sessile  at 
base  of  umbel:  pistils  fewer  than  in 
Anemone 3.  Anemonella 


324  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

DD.  Flowers  in  panicles  or  corj'inbs 4.   ThaUctriim 

cc.  True  petals  present:  yellow 5.  Banuiiculus 

BB.  Fruit,  follicles. 

c.  Flowers  regular. 

D.  Petals  each  spurred 6.  AqiiiJegia 

DO.  Petals  none:  sepals  petal-like,  j-ellow 7.   Caltha 

DDD.  Many  petals:  fls.  very  large  and  of  shades  of 

red :  plant  bushy 8.   Pa'ou  ia 

cc.   Flowers  irregular:  upper  sepal  spurred:  2  petals 

spurred 9.  Delphinium 

BBB.  Fruit,  berries,  red  or  white. 

o.  Flowers  with  petals  and  3-5  petal-like  sepals:   fls. 

small,  white,  in  a  short  raceme  10.  A  ctcea 

AA.  Plants  climbing  by  the  leaf-stalks:  stem  woody 11.   Clematis 

1.  ANEMONE.     Anemony.     Wind-flower. 

Low  perennial  herbs  with  mostly  showy  apetalous  flowers  and  an  invo- 
lucre of  2  or  more  mostly  divided  leaves  standing  some  distance  below  the 
flower:  pistils  ripening  into  a  head  of  akenes. 

a.   Akenes  woolly  or  silky. 

A.  Japdnica,  Sieb  &  Zucc.  Japanese  anemony.  Three  ft.,  blooming  in 
fall,  with  pink  or  white  flowers  2-3  in.  across:  leaves  with  3  cordate-ovate 
notched  leaflets.     Much  planted. 

A.Virgini^na,  Linn.    Two  ft.,  with  involucre  of  three  3-parted  leaves: 
flowers  on  long  stalks  arising  in  succession  from  succeeding  nodes:  sepals  5, 
acute,  greenish- white:  head  of  fruit  oblong,  ^i  in.  long.     Woods, 
aa.    Akenes  not  woolly  or  silky. 

A.  quinquefdlia,  Linn.  (A.  nemorosa  of  some).  Common  tvind- flower. 
Low,  about  6  in.,  blooming  in  rich  woods  in  early  spring:  involucral  leaves  3, 
each  with  3  or  5  long  leaflets:  flowers  white,  purplish  outside,  pretty. 

2.  HEPATICA.     Liverleaf.     Mayflower  of  some  places. 

Differs  from  Anemone  chiefly  in  having  3  simple  sepal-like  bracts  be- 
neath the  flower  (but  they  are  sometimes  a  half-inch  removed  from  it): 
flowers  in  earliest  spring,  white,  blush  or  blue,  on  simple  hairy  scapes: 
leaves  bread,  3-lobed.     Woods. 

H.  triloba,  Chaix.     Leaves  with  rounded  lobes. 

H.  acutiloba,  DC.     Leaves  with  acute  lobes. 

3.  ANEMONllLLA.    Rue  Anemone. 

Attractive  slender  perennial  herb,  resembling  Anemone:  basal  leaves 
2  or  3  times  compound  :  involucre  of  3  compound  leaves  at  base  of  the 
umbel:  leaflets  petioled:  flowers  in  a  terminal  umbel,  on  slender  pedicels: 
petals  wanting:  sepals  5-10,  white  or  pinkish,  1  in.  broad,  petal-like:  pistils 
4-1,5:  stigma  broad,  sessile  on  carpels,  glabrous  and  deeply  grooved, 

A.  thalictroldefl,  Spach.    Hue  anemone.    Stem  slender  &-10  in.,  appear- 


KANUNCULACE^  325 

ing  in  earliest  spring  before  the  2-3  ternately  compound  basal  leaves,  rising 
from  a  cluster  of  tuberous  roots:  sepals  5-10,  bright,  quite  lasting.  A  com- 
mon spring  flower  of  the  woodland,  appearing  with  the  Wood  Anemone  or 
Wind-flower  and  easily  confused  with  it. 

4.  THALtCTEUM.    Meadow  Rue. 

Mostly  smooth  perennial  herbs,  erect,  sometimes  several  feet  high: 
panicled  flowers  small,  greenish  and  inconspicuous,  often  dioecious,  or 
polygamous:  foliage  light,  graceful,  the  alternate  leaves  being  2— t  ternately 
compound,  with  the  leaflets  and  divisions  stalked:  calyx  of  4-5  petal-like 
greenish  sepals,  soon  falling:  stamens  many:  ovaries  4-15,  one-seeded. 

T.  didicum,  Linn.  Early  meadoiv  rue.  Flowers  dioecious,  green  or  pur- 
plish, in  loose  panicles:  leaflets  thin  and  delicate,  15-7-loljed,  pale  beneath, 
somewhat  drooping  on  the  petiolules:  anthers  yellow,  drooping  on  thread- 
like tilaments:  akenes  about  8,  sessile  or  nearly  so:  1-2  ft.  high.  Common 
in  woodlands.    April  and  May. 

T.  polygamum,  Muhl.  Tall  meadoiv  rue.  Coarser,  ranker  and  later  than 
T.  dioicuni,  4-8  ft.  high:  filaments  of  stamens  broad,  spatulate:  akenes 
.stalked:  flowers  polygamous,  sepals  white. 

T.  purpurascens,  Linn.  Purplish  meadow  rue.  Stem  2-5  ft.  high  usu- 
ally purplish:  stem  leaves  almost  sessile:  leaflets  thick,  dark  green  above, 
pale  and  waxy  or  downy  beneath,  margins  slightly  rolled  or  thickened: 
flowers  polygamous  or  dioecious,  greenish  and  purplish:  anthers  drooping 
on  filiform  filaments.    June-August. 

5.  KANtNCULUS.     Crowfoot.     Buttercup.     Figs.  2,  187,  188,  191,  242. 

Perennials  or  annuals,  with  mostly  yellow  flowers:  sepals  5:  petals  5, 
and  bearing  a  little  pit  or  scale  at  the  base  inside:  leaves  alternate:  akenes 
many  in  a  head. 

E.  icris,  Linn.  Tall  buttercup.  Two  to  3  ft.,  from  a  fibrous  root: 
leaves  3-parted,  all  the  divisions  sessile  and  again  3-cleft:  flowers  bright 
yellow.     Europe,  but  now  a  common  weed.     Summer. 

E.  bulbbsus,  Linn.  Earlier,  and  only  half  as  tall,  from  a  bulbous  base: 
leaves  3-parted,  the  lateral  divisions  sessile  and  the  terminal  one  stalked: 
peduncles  furrowed:   flowers  bright  yellow.     Europe;  common  eastward. 

R.  septentrionilis,  Poir.  Stems  more  or  less  prostrate  at  base,  often 
fox-ming  long  runners :  leaves  3-divided,  divisions  all  stalked  and  3-lobed  or 
-parted:  petals  obovate,  yellow.     Wet  places. 

R.  abortivus,  Linn.  Glabrous,  biennial  herb;  6  in.  to  2  ft.,  branching: 
basal  leaves  heart-shaped  or  kidney-form,  crenate  (S)metimes  lobed),  on 
long  stalks:  later  leaves,  often  3-5-lobed  or  parted,  and  sessile  or  nearly  so: 
petals  small,  yellow,  not  equal  to  the  sepals:  styles  very  short,  curved. 
Shady  woods  and  along  stream-sides.    April  to  June. 

R.  micr&nthus,  Nutt.  Pubescent,  smaller  than  preceding  and  basal 
leaves  ovate,  but  not  heart-shaped,  some  3-parted:  fairly  common. 


326  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

K.  recurv4tU8,  Foir.  Usually  pubescent,  erect,  branching,  1-2  ft.:  leaves 
ail  petiolerl  and  similarly  S-parted :  sepals  longer  than  the  pale  yellow  petals 
and  recurved:  l)eaks  of  akenes  strongly  hooked.    Common.    S[)ring. 

6    AQUILfiGIA.  CoiAMBiNE. 

Upright   herbs,  with  compound    leaves    which    have    petioles  expanded 
at   the   base:    sepals   5,  somewhat  petal-like:    petals  5,  each   one  produced 
into  a  long  nectary  spur;    pistils  5:    fruit    a   several- 
seeded    follicle.      Delphinium   or   larkspur  is  an  allied 
genus. 

a.    Spurs  straight. 

A.  Canadensis,  Linn.  Common  wild  columbine. 
Often  incorrectly  called  honeysucJcle.  Fig.  458.  About 
2  ft. :  leaflets  rounded  or  obovate,  toothed  at  top:  flowers 
about  2  in.  long,  drooping,  scarlet  and  orange  or  nearly 
yellow,  the  stamens  projecting.  Common  on  rocks. 
A.  chrysdntha,  Gray.  Yelloiv  columbine.  Flowers 
458.  bright  yellow,  erect  or  becoming  so.     New  Mexico  and 

AquUegia  Canadensis.    Arizona,  but  frequent  in  gardens. 

aa.    Spurs  hooked  at  the  end. 
A.  Yulg&ris,  Linn.     Bhie  columbine.     A  European  species,  common  in 
gardens,  and  often  full  double:    flowers  varying  from  blue  and  purple  to 
white,  with  rather  short  and  thick  hooked  spurs. 

7.  CALTHA.     Marsh  Marigold.     Cowslip  (in  America). 

Low  tufted  herbs  with  undivided  leaves,  and  clusters  of  yellow  butter- 
cup-like flowers:  sepals  5-9,  petal-like:  petals  none:  pistils  5-10,  ripening 
into  several-seeded  follicles. 

C.  palustris,  Linn.  About  1  ft.  high:  leaves  rounded  or  kidney-shaped, 
crenate  or  nearly  entire.     Wet  places,  in  early  spring.     Used  for  "greens." 

8.  P.ffiONIA.    Paeony.   Piney. 

Stems  shrubby  and  perennial  or,  as  in  the  commoner  garden  forms,  her- 
baceous, from  thick,  fleshy  roots:  leaves  ternately  and  pinnalely  compound: 
flowers  large,  terminal,  solitary:  sepals  5,  unequal,  leafy,  persistent:  pet- 
als 5  to  indefinite  in  number:  ovaries  3-5,  surrounded  by  a  disk:  fruit, 
many-seeded  follicles.    Oriental. 

P.  o!ficind.lis,  Linn.  Common  gat-den  pceony.  Large  flowers,  double: 
red,  pink,  flesh-colored  to  white:  carpels  2,  pubescent,  forming  2  erect, 
many-seeded  follicles.    June. 

9.  DELPHINIUM.    Larkspur.    Figs.  208,  209,  210,  233,  243,  244. 

Stems  erect,  simple  or  branching,  with  alternate  leaves,  petioled,  pal- 
mately-divided  or-lobed:  flowers  in  a  terminal  raceme  or  panicle,  white,  blue, 
purple  and  showy,  with  irregular  sepals  and  petals:  sepals  5,  colored,  the 
upper  spurred  behind;  petals  4  (rarely  2),  the  upper  pair  spurred,  and  en- 


KANUNCULACE^  327 

closed  in  the  spur  of  the  sepal:  carpels  1-5,  sessile,  forming  many- seeded 
follicles.     Several  wild  and  cultivated  species. 

D.  Aj^cis,  Linn.  Annual,  1-2  feet:  Howers  purple,  roseate  or  white, 
sometimes  double,  many,  in  crowded  racemes;  pistil  1:  follicle  pubescent, 
with  short,  stout  beak.  Cultivated  and  a  showy  garden  plant:  sometimes 
escaped  from  giirdens. 

D.  tric6rne,  Michx.  Perennial,  6  in.  to  1  or  2  ft.:  flowers  blue  or  white, 
in  few-flowered  racemes  (6-12):  leaves  5-parted,  the  divisions  3-5-cleft: 
pistils  3:  follicles  widely  diverging,  short-beaked.  In  rich  soil,  west  of 
Alleghanies.    April  to  June. 

10.  ACT.SA.    Baneberry. 

Erect,  perennial  plants,  in  rich  woods,  2-3  ft.,  with  conspicuous  red  or 
white  berries:  steins  mostly  simple,  bearing  large,  ternately  compound 
leaves,  the  leaflets  ovate  but  sharply  cut- lobed  or  toothed:  flowers  small, 
white,  in  thick  terminal  racemes:  sepals  3-5,  soon  falling;  petals  4-10,  long- 
clawed,  flat,  spatulate:  stamens  many,  filaments  white  and  slender:  ovary 
1,  with  a  broad,  sessile,  2-lobed  stigma,  manyovuled. 

A.  &lba,  Bigel.  White,  haneherrtj.  Raceme  oblong:  petals  truncate, 
pedicels  thickened,  and  usually  red:  berries  white,  ellipsoid.  Common  in 
woods.   April  to  June. 

A.  spicata  var.  rubra,  Ait.  Eed  baneberry.  Raceme  ovate  or  hemi- 
spherical: petals  acute:  pedicels  slender:  berries  cherry -red  (sometimes 
white),  oval  or  ellipsoid.  Common  in  woods,  especially  northward.  In  bloom, 
April,  May. 

11.  CLEMATIS.    Virgin's  Bower.    Figs.  73,  166,  .%0. 

Herbs,  or  somewhat  woody,  generally  climbing  by  clasping  petioles* 
leaves  opposite,  simple  or  compound :  flowers  apetalous,  or  petals  very  small : 
sepals  4  (rarely  more)  and  colored:  stamens  many,  a  number  of  them  (some- 
times all)  usually  sterile:  pistils  many  in  a  head,  bearing  the  persistent, 
plumose  or  silky  styles.     Many  large-flowered  cultivated  forms. 

C.  verticill&riB,  DC.  A  woody  climber,  nearly  smooth:  leaves  in  whorls 
of  4's,  each  3-foliolate:  large,  purple  flowers  2-3  in.  across,  at  each  node. 
Not  common,  belonging  mainly  to  the  North  and  to  mountainous  districts: 
May,  June. 

C.  Vi6rna,  Linn.  Leaves  mostly  pinnately  compound,  with  .3-7  leaflets, 
entire,  or  3-lobed:  flowers  solitary  and  usually  nodding  on  long  peduncles. 
bell-shaped,  having  peculiarly  thick  sepals,  with  their  points  reourvcd: 
purplish-red  color:  the  long  akenes  plumose.  Climbing,  Penn.,  W.  May 
to  August. 

C.  Virginid,na,  Linn.  Common  virgin^s  bower.  Old-man  vine  (from 
the  heads  of  hairy  styles).  A  common  climbing  plant,  along  fences,  streams 
and  in  low  woodlands:  leaves  compound,  glabrous,  with  3  leaflets  cut  or 
lobed  and  nearly  heart-shaped  at  base:  flowers  small,  in  leafy  panicles,  poly- 
gamo-dioecious :  petals  none,  but  sepals  whitifh,  thin,  spreading:  styles 
long-pluroed  io  fruit,  making  a  feathery  cluster.     July,  August. 


328  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 


XVI.   BERBERIDACE^.     Barberry  Family. 

Herbs  and  shrubs  with  alternate  or  radical  leaves,  sometimes  with 
stipules:  flowers  regular,  perfect  (except  1  genus),  hypogynous,  soli- 
tary or  racemed:  sepals  and  petals  usually  in  several  rows  of  3  each, 
and  calyx  colored:  stamens  as  many  as  petals  (rarely  more)  and  one 
opposite  to  each  petal:  anthers  opening  at  the  top  by  two  valves  or 
lids  (except  in  Podophyllum) :  pistil  1 :  fruit  a  berry  or  pod.  About  20 
genera  and  100  species. 

A.  Shrubs:  flowers  yellow:  berries  red  or  orange,  remain- 
ing on  branches  into  the  winter 1.  Berberis 

AA.  Herbs. 

B.  Flowers    on    leafless    scapes:     leaves    radical,    each 

2-parted:  fruit  a  pod,  opening  at  the  top  by  a  lid. 2.  Jeffersoiiia 
BB.  Flower  on  short   pedicel,  in  fork   between   2    large 

leaves:    fruit  a  large,  oval,  edible  berry 3.  Podophyllum 

1.  BfiRBERIS.     Barberry.     Figs.  156,  173,  205. 

Slirubs,  often  spiny:  flowers  yellow,  in  drooping  racemes:  sepals  C-9, 
colored,  bracted:  petals  6,  each  with  2  basal  glandular  spots:  stamens  G, 
irritable,  bending  inward  when  touched:  pistil  1:  stigma  circular,  sessile: 
berries  sour,  1-few-seeded:  leaves  simple  or  compound,  bases  dilated  and 
jointed  on  short  petioles,  usually  spiny-toothed,  sometimes  reduced  to 
cleft  spines. 

B.  vulgaris,  Linn.  Common  barberry.  Leaves  with  repandly-toothed 
margins,  teeth  spinous-pointed  or  represented  by  branched  (3-pronged) 
spines:  berries  oblong,  scarlet,  acid.  Europe:  but  cultivated  and  naturalized 
in  eastern  and  middle  states. 

B.  Canadensis,  Pursh.  Shrub  1-3  ft.,  native  to  southern  mountains, 
with  oval  berries  and  few-flowered  racemes. 

B.  Thunb6rgii,  DC.  Cultivated,  low  shrub  with  small  entire  leaves  and 
handsome  horizontal  sprays:  flowers  solitary  or  in  pairs,  on  slender  pedii-els, 
from  leaf-axils:  berries  bright  red,  remaining  on  the  twigs  into  the  winter: 
leaves  K-1  in.  long,  also  red  in  fall.     Japan. 

2.  JEFFERSONIA..     Twin-leaf.    Rheumatism  Root. 

Perennial  glabrous  herb,  from  roots  of  matted,  blackish  fibers,  with 
ample  2-parted  leaves,  rising  on  long  petioles  from  the  roots:  scape  bearing  1 
terminal  large  white  flower:  sepals  4,  soon  falling:  petals  usually  8,  oblong: 
stamens  8,  with  linear  anthers  on  slim  filaments:  stigma  peltate,  with  many 
ovules  on  lateral  placentae:  pod  green,  leathery,  becotning  pear-shaped  and 
dehisces  by  a  lid,  opening  half-way  round  the  upper  part,  from  which  the 
many,  rounded  seeds,  arilled  on  one  side,  spill  forth. 

J.  diphyila,  Pers.  Scape  erect  to  8  or  12  inches:  leaves  divided  longitu- 
dinally into  two  parts,  with  usually  entire  margins.  Very  interesting  little 
plant  in  rich  woods,  spring:  sometimes  cultivated. 


BEKBERIDACE^ — NYMPH^ACE^  329 

3.  PODOPHYLLUM.    May  Apple     Mandrake. 

Smooth  perennials  from  creepin;^  horizontal  rootstocks,  and  thick, 
flbrou.s  roots:  stems  smooth,  smpie,  carrj'ing  'arge,  peltate,  glossy-green 
leaves  and  a  solitary  white  flower:  sepals  6,  petal-like,  soon  falling:  petals 
6-!),  concave,  broad  and  large:  stamens  as  many  or  twice  as  many  as  petals: 
pistil  1,  with  sessile,  large,  thick,  stigma:  fruit  a  large,  fleshy,  oval,  1-celled 
berry,  filled  by  many  seeds,  each  seed  enclosed  in  a  pulpy  aril,  edible. 

P.  peltEltum,  Linn.  Leaves  2,  large,  orbicular,  peltate,  deeply  5-9-lobed 
and  few  toothed:  flowers  fragrant,  solitary  from  the  common  axil  of  the  two 
stem  leaves,  borne  on  a  short,  recurved  peduncle:  petals,  large,  white,  wax- 
like: common  in  rich,  shady,  woodland,  often  in  large  patches.  May,  June. 
(See  tail-piece,  p.  23.) 

XVII.    NYMPH.EACE^.   Water- Lily  Family. 

Aquatic,  perennial  herbs,  with  very  large  rootstocks  under  water: 
leaves  large,  peltate  or  heart-shaped,  often  floating:  flowers  solitary, 
on  axillary  peduncles :  sepals  3-5  or  6 :  petals  5  to  many :  stamens  5  to 
many,  with  large,  erect  anthers:  carpels  3  to  many,  distinct,  or  united 
in  a  circle  or  with  the  receptacle:  fruit  indehiscent,  or  group  of 
distinct  carpels.  Eight  genera,  of  wide  distribution  in  fresh  water. 
The  great  Victoria  Regia  of  the  Amazon,  and  often  cultivated,  belongs 
here. 

A.  Flowers  white:  sepals  4 1.  JSymplupa 

AA.   Flowers  yellow:   sepals  5  or  more 2.  Ktiphar 

1.  NYMPHa;A.    Water-Lilv. 

Herbs  with  floating  leaves  and  beautiful,  large,  many-petaled  flowers: 
sepals  4,  white  within,  green  without:  petals  large,  wax-like,  gradually 
becoming  smaller,  and  passing  into  the  yellow  stamens  which  are  adherent 
to  the  many-celled  ovary:  stignuis  radiate  (as  in  a  poppy  head)  from  a 
center:   fruit  ripens  under  water. 

N.  odor^lta,  Ait.  White  water-lily.  Flower  2-6  in.  across,  very  sweet- 
scented:  petals  oftenest  white,  sometimes  tinged  with  pinkish.    Common. 

2.  NtJPHAR.    Yellow  Pond-lily. 

Distinguished  from  the  water-lily  by  the  leaves,  which  are  more  or  less 
heart-shaped,  floating  or  erect:  also  by  the  flowers,  which  are  2-3  in.  in 
diameter,  with  small,  linear,  yellow  or  purplish  petals,  becoming  stamen-like 
toward  center:  fruit  ripens  above  water.  The  name  Nymphsea  is  sometimes 
applied  to  this  genus,  Castalia  being  then  used  for  the  Water-Lily. 

N.  Advena,  Ait.  Spalterdock.  Leaves  oval,  thick,  6  in.  to  1  ft.,  long, 
floating  or  erect:  flowers  yellow,  sepals  6  or  more,  not  equal:  petals  thick, 
truncate,  resembling  stamens. 


330  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

XVIII.  PAPAVERACE.E.  Poppy  Family. 
Herbs  with  milky  or  colored  juice  (acrid  and  narcotic),  alternate 
or  radical  exstipulate  leaves,  the  upper  rarely  opposite:  flowers  mostly 
single,  regular  or  irregular,  perfect:  sepals  2  (rarely  3  or  4),  falling  as 
the  flower  opens:  petals  4-6  (or  more),  imbricated,  often  crumpled  in 
the  bud,  and  early  falling:  stamens  usually  many:  ovary  1-  to  many- 
ovuled,  l-cel!ed:  fruit  a  dry  pod  or  capsule,  1 -celled  or,  in  Poppy, 
imperfectly  many-celled,  generally  dehiscing  by  a  pore  or  by  valves. 
Small  family  of  mostly  small  but  usually  showy  herbs. 

A.     Plants  with  white  (milky)  juice 1.   Papaver 

A  A.   Plants  with  colorless  juice  (watery) 2.   iJ.schschnlzia 

AAA.   Plants  with  red  or  orange  juice. 

B.  Flower-bud  erect:  flowers  white,  in  earliest  spring.  .3.   Savguinaria 
BB.  Flower-buds  generally  nodding;   flowers  yellow. 

C.  Stigma  3-  to  4-Iobed,  on  a  short  style.    Capsule 

ovoid 4.   Stylophomm 

CC.  Stigma  2-lobed,  about  sessile:  capsule  long 5.   CheUdoninm 

1.  PAPAVER.    Poppy. 

Herbs  with  white  juice:  stems  smooth  or  hairy,  erect,  and  the  terminal 
buds  nodding,  but  erect  in  flower  and  fruit:  sepals  2  (or3)  soon  falling:  petals 
4-6:  sessile  stigmas  united  to  form  a  rayed  disk. 

P.  somniferum,  Linn.  Opium  poppy.  Annual,  erect  to  \^A  to  2  ft., 
branching,  glaucous,  with  large,  white  or  purplish-centered  flowers  on  long 
peduncles:  leaves  sessile,  clasping,  variously  incised:  capsule  smootli. 
Cultivated  for  opium  and  for  ornament. 

P.  Rhoeas,  Linn.  Corn  poppy.  Shirley  poppy.  Annual,  bristly,  hairy, 
the  leaves  deeply  lobed:  flowers  mostly  red  or  scarlet  with  a  dark  center, 
varying  in  cultivation:  pod  small. 

P.  orientd,le,  Linn.  Stem  rough-hairy,  l-flowered:  flowers  very  large, 
brilliant,  sca'let:  leaves  scabrous,  deep  green,  about  pinnate.  A  favorite 
|)ereiinial  in  gardens. 

P.  nudicaille,  Linn.  Icihind  poppy.  Rather  delicate,  hairy,  with  leaves 
radical,  pale  green,  and  pinnately  incised:  flowers  single,  on  slender,  hairy 
scapes,  orange  or  white.     Gardens. 

2.  ESCHSCHOLZIA. 

Annual  or  perennial  herbs:  leaves  glaucous,  finely  pinnatifled:  sepals  2, 
cohering  as  a  pointed  cap,  falling  as  flower  opens:  petals  4,  yellow  or  orange 
or  cream-colored:  stamens  many,  adherent  to  petals:  stigmas  2-G,  sessile: 
pods  long,  cylindric,  grooved,  many-seeded. 

E.  Calif6rnica,  Cham.  California  poppy.  Cultivated  in  flower-gar 
dens:     stem     branching,     leafy:     flowers     showy     and     large,     receptacle 


PAPAVERACE.E— FUMARIACE^  331 

funnel-form,    with    a   broadly    dilated    rim:- pod   long    and    slender.     Cali- 
fornia. 

3.  SANGUINARIA.    Bloodroot. 

Low,  acaulescent  perennial,  from  thick,  horizontal,  pointed  and  scarred 
rootstocks,  with  juice  red  and  acrid:  in  very  early  spring  a  naked  scape, 
carrying  1  terminal  white  Hower,  enfolded  at  first  by  long-petioled  kidney- 
shaped  or  cordate,  glaufous,  palmately  veined  leaf,  sepals  2,  soon  falling: 
petals  8-12,  unequal,  in  2  rows,  not  lasting:  stamens  many:  fruit  a  capsule, 
oblong,  swollen,  1-celled,  many-seeded,  2-valved,  dehiscent  at  base. 

8.  Canadensis,  Linn.  Flower  large,  white,  fragile,  on  a  scape  about  6 
in.  tall:  glabrous  and  glaucous:  leaves  with  rounded  lobes  and  sinuses. 
Common  in  rich,  open  woods  and  on  sunny  banks;  early  spring. 

4.  STYLOPHOBUM.  Celandine  Poppy. 

Hairy  herbs  with  yellow  juice,  and  pinnately  divided  leaves:  flowers 
large,  yeliow:  style  1:  the  stigma  3-4-lobed. 

S.  diph^Uum,  Nutt.  Low  perennial,  usually  with  two  opposite,  pin- 
nately parted  leaves  on  the  stem:  leaves  often  marked  with  white,  5-7-lobed: 
flowers  few,  in  umbels,  large,  1)4-2  in.  across,  clear  yellow.  Frequent  in 
rich  woods  in  central  states.   May. 

5.  CHELIDONIUM.    Celandine. 

Rather  weak,  branching  herbs:  perennial:  leaves  alternate,  pinnatified: 
juice  deep  yellow:  flowers  yellow,  small,  the  bud  nodding:  sepals  2:  petals 
4:   stamens  many. 

C.  majus,  Linn.  Along  roadsides,  about  fences,  as  a  weed,  growing  1-4 
ft.  high:  leaves  thin,  once  or  twice  pinnatified:  flowers  in  loose  umbels, 
soon  perishing,  about  >2-%  in,  in  diameter. 


XIX.    FUMARIACE^ 

Smooth,  succulent  herbs  with  noticeably  delicate,  finely  dissected, 
or  lace-like  leaves,  alternate  or  radical,  exstipulate:  flowers  small, 
irregular,  racemose:  2  very  small  sepals,  scale-like:  petals  4,  small, 
partially  united :  6  diadelphous  stamens  (2  sets  of  3  each):  ovaries  1- 
celled,  fruit  a  pod,  1-eelled,  1-seeded  and  indehiscent,  or  several- 
seeded  with  2  parietal  placentse. 

A.  Corolla  2- spurred  at  base,  or  heart-shaped:   fis.  pendent  .A.  Bicentra 
AA.  Corolla  with  1  spur  at  base. 

B.  Pod  slender,  several-seeded:  seeds  arilled,  or  crested... 2.   Conjdalis 
BB.  Pod  globular,  1-seeded,  indehiscent 3.  Fumaria 


332  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

1.  dic£ntba. 

Low,  acaulescent  perennials,  among  the  earliest  and  most  delicate  of 
spring  flowers  :  leaves  compound  in  threes,  finely  dissected  (lace-like),  on 
tender  pinkish  petioles  from  the  roots:  the  racemose,  nodding  flowers,  borne 
on  leafless,  flesh-colored  scapes:  pedicels  2-bracted:  corolla  peculiarly 
irrejjular — 4  petals  in  2  pairs,  the  2  outer  spurred  at  base,  somewhat  united 
to  form  a  2-spurred  corolla,  the  inner  pair  of  petals  spoon-shaped,  crested, 
meeting  over  the  pistil  and  stamens:  stamens  G,  in  two  sets,  opposite  the 
outer  petals. 

D.  CucuU&ria,  DC.  Dutchman's  hre<-ches.  Leaves  from  a  cluster  of 
little  pinkish  tubers,  forming  a  bulb:  flowers  with  straight  spurs,  longer 
than  pedicel,  and  diverging,  mostly  creamy  with  yellow  tips  to  petals,  not 
fragrant. 

D.  Canadensis,  DC.  Squirrel  corn.  Fig.  172.  Similar  to  the  preceding, 
but  leaves  usually  glaucous:  root  tubers  yellow,  resembling  grains  of  Lidian 
corn:  flowers  differing  in  shape  fromX>.  Cucnlluria  in  being  more  elongated, 
spurs  short  and  rounded,  and  the  crests  of  the  inner  2  petals  prominent: 
fragrant.  Blooms  a  little  later  than  preceding,  but  found  in  same  situa- 
tions. 

D.  spectdbilis,  DC.  Bleeding-heart.  A  smooth,  leafy-stemmed  plant  of 
many  gardens;  stems  much  branching;  leaves  large,  twice  ternately  com- 
pound: flowers  many  and  showy  in  long  racemes  drooping  from  the 
curving  stems,  heart-shaped,  bright  rose  or  pink:  no  sepals  when  in  full 
flower.    Siberia. 

2.  CORtDALIS. 

Biennial  or  perennial  herbs  with  leafy  stems,  pale  or  glaucous:  leaves 
much  divided  or  decompound :  flowers  small,  in  racemes:  corolla  4-petal«'d, 
irregular:  one  of  the  outer  pair  of  petals  spurred  at  the  base,  a  1  erect  and 
somewhat  united. 

C.  glailca,  Pursh.  Stem,  slender,  erect,  6  in.  to  2  ft. :  leaves  small,  sessile 
above,  all  finely  dissected:  flowers  horizontal  in  terminal  racemes:  spurs 
short  and  blunt:  corolla  rosy,  yellow-tipped:  outer  petals  sharp-pointed:  pods 
erect,  slender.    May  to  June. 

C.  atirea,  Willd.  Low,  diffuse  or  spreading:  flowers  yellow,  %  in.  long: 
outer  petals  keeled,  not  crested:  spur  shorter  than  pedicel  (M  in.),  decurved: 
pods  hanging  or  spreading,  knotty.    March  to  May. 

3.  FUMARIA.    Fumitory. 

Annuals,  branched  and  leafy-stemmed :  leaves  compound,  finely  dissected : 
flowers  small,  in  dense  racemes  or  spikes:  petals  4,  unequal,  1-spurred  at 
base:  stamens  6,  diadelphous:  fruit  small,  globular,  1-seeded,  indehiscent, 
the  style  falling. 

F.  officinalis,  Linn.  Low,  ranch  branched,  erect  to  1  ft.,  glabrous :  flowers 
purple-tipped,  pinkish,  minute,  in  loose  spikes:  sepals  acute,  sharply  toothed, 
shorter  than  corolla.    Waste  places.    Summer.    Introduced. 


CRUCIFEK^  333 


XX.    CRUCIFER^.    Mustard  Family. 

Herbs,  mostly  of  small  stature,  with  alternate  mostly  simple 
leaves:  flowers 4-merous  as  to  envelopes,  the  four  petals  usually  stand- 
ing 90  degrees  apart  and  thereby  forming  a  cross  (whence  the  name 
Cruciferte,  or  "cross-bearing"):  stamens  usually  6,  two  of  them 
shorter:  fruit  a  silique  or  silicle.  A  very  natural  or  well-marked 
family,  with  about  180  genera  and  nearly  2,000  species.  Familiar 
plants  are  mustard,  shepherd's  purse,  honesty,  cress,  pepper-grass, 
wallflower,  stock,  cabbage,  turnip,  radish,  horse-radish. 

A.  Fruit  a  silique  (much  longer  than  broad). 

B.  Silique  tipped  with  a  long  point  or  beak,  extending 

beyond  the  valves,  the  latter  more  than  1-nerved.   1.  Brassica 
BB.  Silique  not  prominently  beaked  beyond  the  valves. 

o.  Flowers  yellow 2.  Barharea 

cc.  Flowers  white  or  purple. 

u.  Valves  with  a  midrib,  or  seeds  in  2  rows. 

E.  Stigma  deeply  2-lobed:  flowers  large 3.  Matfhiola 

EE.  Stigma  but  slightly,  if  at  all  2-lobed 4.  Arabis 

DD.  Valves  without  midrib. 
E.  Seeds  in  1  row. 

F.  Stems  leafless  below,  with  2  or  3  leaves 

near  middle:  rootstock  scaly 5.  Dentaria 

FF.  Stems  leafy:  roots  more  fibrous 6.   Cardamine 

EE.  Seeds  in  2  rows  in  each  cell.    (Water  plants. 
See  Nastiirfium). 
AA.   Fruit  a  silicle  (short  and  broad). 

B.  Partition  in  the  pod  parallel  to  the  sides. 

c.  Fruit  not  much  compressed:   seeds  minute,  in  2 

rows  in  each  cell 7.  Nasturtium 

CC.   Fruit  quite  flattened,  2-8  seeded 8.  Alyssum 

BE.  Partition  crosswise  the  pod. 

c.  Pod  obcordate,  many-seeded 9.  Capsella 

oc.  Pod  orbicular,  2-seeded:  corolla  regular 10.  Lepidium 

ccc.  Pod  rounded  or  ovate:  corolla  irregular  with  un- 
equal petals 11.  Iberis 

AAA.  Fruit    fleshy,    indehiscent,    constricted    between     the 

seeds 12.  Baphanus 

1.  BRASSICA.    Mustard. 

Erect  branchy  herbs,  mostly  annual,  with  more  or  less  lyrate  lower 
leaves,  and  small  yellow  flowers  in  racemes  or  panicles:  petals  clawed  or 
narrowed  below,  the  limbs  spreading  horizontally .  silique  narrow,  cylindrical 
or  4-angled,  the  valves  1-5-nerved  and  the  seeds  in  1  row  in  each  locule. 


334  THE    KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

Cabbage,  cauliflower,  and  turnip  also  belong  to  this  genus.     The  three  fol- 
lowing are  common  weeds  introduced  from  Europe. 

B.  nigra,  Koch.     Black  mustard.     Fig.  459.     Leaves  pinnatitid,  some- 
what hairy:  pod  short,  strongly  4-angled,  not  hairy.     Mustard  (flour)  comes 
largely  from  this  species. 

B,  dlba,  Boiss.  White  mustard.  Leaves  pinnatifid  and  rough- 
hairy:  pods  rather  slender,  hairy,  but  only  the  lower  part  seed- 
bearing. 

B.  Sinapistrum,  Boiss.  Charlock.  Leaves  strongly  toothed: 
pod  knotty,  hairy  or  smooth,  the  upper  third  indehiscent  and 
2-edged. 

2.  BABBAII£;A.     Winter-cress. 

Low   herbs,    blooming  in  early  spring,  with  many  small   light 

yellow  flowers,  and  lyrate  leaves  with  the  terminal  division  much  the 

largest:  pod  cylindrical  or  somewhat  4-angled,  the  valves  having  a 

strong  midvein:  seeds  a  single  row. 

459.  B.  vulg£lris,  R.   Br.     Common  winter  cress.     Yellow    rocket. 

Brassica  Biennial,  about  1  ft.  high,  with  smooth  foliage  and  flowers  in  elon- 

nigra.    gating   clusters:    lower  leaves  lyrate,  upper  ones   cut   or   merely 

toothed.     Low  grounds. 

3.  MATTHlOLA.     Stock.    Gilliplower. 

Cultivated  garden  or  house  plants  from  Europe:  stems  and  leaves  hoary- 
pubescent:  flowers  showy,  single  or  double,  of  many  colors,  fragrant,  in 
terminal  racemes:  stigma  deeply  2-lobed:  silique  nearly  cylindrical,  with 
prominent  midrib  on  each  of  the  two  valves:  seeds  winged. 

M,  incitiia,  Br.  Biennial  or  perennial  with  stout,  rather  woody  stem: 
l":ives  lanceolate,  entire:  flowers  white,  varied  shades  of  red,  purple,  etc. 
]\Iuch  grown  in  gardens  and  greenhouses. 

4.  AKABIS.     Rock  Cress. 

Mostly  very  small  herbs  with  purple  or  white  flowers:  stems  leafy:  rad- 
ical leaves  spatulate,  the  stem  leaves  sessile:  siliques  very  narrow,  elongated, 
flat,  the  valves  smooth,  keeled  or  one-nerved  in  the  middle,  or  veined  length- 
wise: seeds  in  1  or  2  rows  in  each  cell,  flattened,  usually  margined  or 
winged. 

A.  Canadensis,  Linn.  Sickle-pod.  Biennial  with  stems  erect,  1-3  ft.: 
leaves  lanceolate,  pointed  at  both  ends,  simple,  toothed  or  entire,  sessile, 
pubescent:  flowers  small,  white,  petals  twice  as  long  as  sepals:  pods  long, 
flat,  sickle-shaped,  pendent  on  hairy  pedicels:  seeds  broadly  winged.  Com- 
mon in  woods  and  rocky  ravines. 

A.  perfolid,ta,  Lam.  Biennial;  tall,  2-4  ft.,  glaucous  above,  but  pubescent 
at  base,  with  many  stem  leaves,  ovate-lanceolate,  sessile,  sagittate-clasping 
at  base;  petals  yellowish  white,  scarcely  longer  than  the  calyx:  pods  narrow, 
erect:  seeds  in  2  rows,  marginless.     Fields  and  rocky  places. 


CRUCIFER^  335 

5.  DENTARIA.     Toothwokt. 

Low  herbs,  perennial,  found  in  damp  woodland,  blooming  with  the  early 
spring  flowers,  bearing  flowers  in  corymbs,  white,  roseate  or  purplish, 
larger  than  the  similar  flowers  of  Cardamine:  rootstocks  long,  horizontal, 
scaly  or  toothed,  aromatic  or  with  cress-like  taste:  stems  erect,  unbranched, 
leafless  below,  with  2  or  3  palmately  divided  or  compound  leaves  on  petioles, 
near  the  middle:  fruit  a  linear  silique,  flattened,  valves  not  nerved,  with  1 
row  of  seeds  in  each  cell:   seeds  not  winged. 

D.  diphylla,  Linn.  Crinkle -root.  Pepper-root.  Stem  erect,  from  a 
toothed  rootstoek:  leaves  usually  2:  leaflets  three-parted,  wide-ovate,  with 
margins  dentate:  flowers  white. 

D.  laciniata,  Muhl.  Fig.  240.  Rootstoek  deep,  short,  tuberous,  con- 
Btricted  in  several  places  (necklace-like):  stem  leaves  3,  nearly  verticillate, 
deeply  3-parted  into  lanceolate,  linear  or  oblong  leaflets,  which  are  lobed  or 
toothed,  and  some  2-cleft:  flowers  white  or  pinkish,  smaller  than  preceding. 

6.  CABDAMINE.    Bitter-cress. 

Very  similar  to  Dentaria,  the  chief  difference  being  in  the  stem,  which 
is  leafy,  and  the  leaves  simple,  usually  more  or  less  lobed,  alternate  on  stem. 
Glabrous  perennials,  growing  in  wet  places  and  along  waterways,  from 
fibrous  roots  or  tubers  (not  scaly  rootstocks),  the  flowers  white  or  purple  in 
terminal  racemes. 

C.  rhomboldea,  DC.  Stem  simple,  erect,  9-18  in.,  from  a  tuber:  leaves 
simple,  petioled  below,  ovate  or  rhombic-oblong  in  shape:  petals  white, 
small,  much  longer  than  calyx.  A  variety  purpurea,  not  so  tall  (4-6  in.), 
with  rose-colored  flowers,  appears  even  earlier  than  the  type. 

7.  NASTTJRTIUM.    Water-cre<s.    Horseradish. 

Low,  mostly  aquatic  or  marsh  plants,  with  pinnate  or  pinnatifled  leaves, 
(sometimes  simple);  flowers  small,  white  or  yellow,  with  spreading  sepals: 
stamens  1-6:  fruits  various,  short  and  broad  (siliele)  or  short-cylindrical: 
valves  convex,  nerveless  or  1-nerved. 

N.  officinale,  R.  Br.  Water-cress.  Glabrous,  growing  in  or  about  water: 
stems  spreading,  rooting  at  the  nodes:  leaves  pinnately  lobed,  with  3-11 
lobes,  the  terminal  segment  largest:  flowers  small  in  racemes,  which 
elongate  as  the  fruits  mature:  petals  white  and  twice  as  long  as  the  sepals. 
A  favorite  plant  for  salads. 

N.  palustre,  DC.  Marsh-cress.  Annual  or  biennial,  with  simple, 
fibrous  roots:  stem  erect,  1-2  ft.,  glabrous  or  slightly  pubescent:  pinnately 
lobed  leaves,  the  upper  sessile:  flowers  small,  yellow;  pods  oblong  or  ovoid, 
turgid,  little  if  any  lunger  than  the  pedicels.     Weed  in  marshy  places. 

N.  Armor&cia,  Fries.  Horse-radish.  Cultivated,  but  sometimes  escaped 
into  waste  grounds:  perennial,  the  roots  long  and  thick:  root  leaves  large, 
coarse,  glabrous,  oblong,  crenate,  rarely  pinnatifled,  on  thick  petioles, 
the  stem  leaves  sessile,  lanceolate:  flowers  small,  petals  white,  longer  than 
calyx. 


336 


THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 


460.     Alyssum 
maritimum. 


8.  ALtSSUM.    Alyssum. 

Small  plants,  mostly  trailing,  with  entire  and  small  leaves:  pod  small, 
orbicular,  one  or  two  seeds  in  each  locule:  flowers  in  elongating  racemes. 

A.  maritimum,  Linn.  Sweet  alyssum  of  the  gardens 
(from  Europe).  Fig.  460.  Annual,  producing  a  profu- 
sion of  small  white,  fragrant  flowers, 

9.  CAPSELLA.     Shepherd's  Purse. 
Low   short-lived    annuals,    with    very    small   white 

flowers  in  racemes:  pod  obcordate  or  inversely  triangu- 
lar, the  partition  running  across  the  narrow  diameter, 
containing  several  seeds. 

C.  Biirsa-pastdris,  Moench.  Common  shepherd's 
V/^c5t^l<i^^  ;j((r.se.  Fig.  259.  One  of  the  commonest  little  weeds: 
^^-~^)^^  ^  root  leaves  pinnatiftd  or  strong-toothed,  in  a  rosette,  the 

stem  leaves  arrow-shaped.     Europe. 

10.  LEPlDIUM.     Pepper  Grass. 
Small  stifiish  annuals  (or  biennials ) ,  which  shed  their 

leaves  late  in  the  season:  flowers  very  small,  white  or  greenish,  in  elongat- 
ing racemes:  pod  small  and  roundish,  the  partition  running  across  the 
narrow  diameter.     Plant  peppery  to  the  taste. 

L.  Virginicum,  Linn.  Common  pepper  grass.  About  1  ft.  high,  much 
branched,  glabrous:  leaves  linear  to  lanceolate,  tapering  to  the  base,  the 
lower  mostly  pinnatifld.     Common  weed;  often  fed  to  canary  birds. 

IL  IBfiRIS.     Candytuft.     Fig.  178. 

Herbs  with  white  or  purple  flowers  in  flat  or  elongated  clusters:  2  outer 
petals  larger  than  2  inner:  silicles  flattened,  truncate,  cells  1-seeded. 
Cultivated. 

I.  umbellElta,  Linn.  Annual,  1  ft.  or  more:  lower  leaves  lanceolate,  the 
upper  linear  and  entire:  flowers  mostly  purple  or  lilac  in  flat  clusters: 
silicles,  acutely  2-lobed.     June  and  July. 

I.  corond,ria,  Don.  Jiocket  candytuft.  Leaves  somewhat  toothed;  flowers 
white  in  spike-like  racemes. 

12.  RAPHANUS.     Radish. 

Annual  or  biennial  herbs,  with  lyrate,  pinnately-lobed  root  leaves: 
flowers  rather  showy  in  long  racemes:  calyx  erect:  petals  clawed:  style  long 
and  slender:  pod  linear,  indehiscent,  constricted  between  the  seeds,  pithy: 
seeds  spherical.     Europe. 

R.  Raphanistrum,  Linn.  White  charlock.  A  weed,  common  in  the 
East:  tap-root  slender:  petals  yellow,  fading  to  white  or  purplish:  pod  4-  to 
10-seeded,  long-beaked,  constricted  between  seeds  when  dry. 

R.  sativus,  Linn.  Garden  radish.  Flowers  pink  or  white:  root  fleshy, 
spindle-  or  turnip-shaped,  red  or  white:  silique  2-3-aeeded,  short  and 
pointed,  with  fleshy  partitions  between  seeds:  seeds  round  and  blackish. 


VIOLAOE^  337 


XXI.    VIOLACE^.     Violet  Family. 

Ours  herbs  with  or  without  stems,  and  simple,  entire  or  cleft  leaves, 
radical  or  alternate,  with  stipules:  flowers  showy,  irregular,  solitary 
on  penduneles:  sepals  persistent:  petals  unequal,  the  lower  one  larger 
or  spurred  at  base:  stamens  with  filaments  short,  broad,  continued 
beyond  the  anthers,  usually  coherent,  joining  over  and  around  the 
pistil:  ovary  simple,  1-celled,  3  parietal  placentae:  fruit  a  3-valved 
capsule,  loeulicidal,  and,  after  dehiscence,  edges  strongly  inrolled  in 
drying,  thus  dispersing  the  seeds.  One  genus  is  well-known. 
VlOLA..     Violets.    Heart's-ease.    Johnny  Jump-up.    Fig.  216. 

Early  flowers  conspicuous  and  petaliferous,  but  frequently  sterile:  some- 
times later  flowers  cleistogamous,  concealed  under  the  leaves,  apetalous 
and  self  fertilized,  usually  developing  seeds:  sepals  eared  at  base:  petals 
unequal,  the  lower  spurred  or  saccate  at  base:  stamens  5,  2  with  spurs  which 
project  into  the  corolla  spur. 

a.  Sfemlesn:   leaves  basal:  flowers  on  penducles  from  roofsfocks. 

1.  Flowers  blue  or  violet:  side  petals  beardless. 

V.  pedi,ta,  Linn.  Bird'' s -foot  violet.  Not  stoloniferous,  rootstock  short, 
stout,  nearly  smooth:  leaves  orbicular  in  outline,  but  palmately  3-  or  5-11- 
lobed  or  divided,  segments  linear  not  lanceolate:  flowers  large,  1  in.  broad, 
pale  violet  or  deep  purple  (varying  to  white):  stigma  large,  not  beaked. 
Sandy  soil.  Var.  bicolor  has  2  upper  petals  deep  velvety  violet,  3  lower  pale 
blue. 

2.  Flowers  blue  or  violet:  side  petals  bearded. 

V.  palmata,  Linn.  Common,  or  early  blue  violet.  Pubescent  to  nearly 
glabrous:  rootstock  stout  and  scaly:  earlj-  leaves  rounded,  cordate  or  kidney- 
shaped,  margin  crenate,  the  later  leaves  various,  palmately  or  pedately 
lobed  or  parted,  on  long  stalks:  flowers  deeper  pale  blue':  the  spur  short, 
saccate:  stigma  beaked. 

V.  cucullata,  Ait.  Common  blue  violet.  A  common  form,  variable  and 
grading  into  I',  palmata:  leaves  not  lobed  or  toothed  at  base,  merely  crenate 
or  dentate,  kidney-form  to  broadly  ovate. 

V.  sagittata,  Ait.  Leaves  sagittate-lanceolate,  or  often  cordate,  toothed 
near  base:  scapes  bearing  the  flowers  shorter  than  the  leaves,  3  to  5  in.: 
sometimes  all  petals  bearded:  stigma  beaked:   flowers  usually  large. 

V.  odorata,  Linn.  Sweet  violet.  English  violet.  Hardy,  cultivated 
species  from  Europe:  stoloniferous  by  creeping  runners:  leaves  downy  or 
glabrous,  rounded  or  heart-shaped  or  broadly  ovate:  flowers  fragrant,  single 
or  double,  sometimes  white. 

3.  Flowers  white. 

V.  lanceolata,  Linn.  Rootstock  smooth,  creeping:  stoloniferous:  leaves 
lanceolate  to  linear,  erect,  tlie  blade  decurrent  on  the  long  petioles :   flowers 


338  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

small  white,  the  lower  and  side  petals  purplish-veined:  petals  beardless: 
cleistoganious  flowers  on  erect  pedicels,  frequently  from  stolons.  Wet 
places. 

V.  bl4nda,  Willd.  Sweet  wild  violet.  Stoloniferous  from  slender  root- 
stock:  flowers  fragrant:  petals  beardless  or  nearly  so,  white  veined  with 
purple:  leaves  cordate  or  rounde<I:  few  cleistogamous  flowers  on  curved 
stalks.     Wet  places.     Plant  small. 

4.  Flowers  yellow. 

V.  rotundifdiia,  Michx.  Stoloniferous:  leaves  rounded  to  cordate,  rpar- 
gin  somewhat  crenate,  finally  growing  large,  glossy  and  lying  flat  on  the 
ground:  flowers  small:  lateral  petals  bearded,  and  with  brown  lines:  sepals 
hluiVo-pointed.     Cool  M'oodlauds. 

b.  Stems  evident,  leafy:  flowers  showy  on  axillary  stalks. 
1.  Flowers  blue  or  violet 

V.  rostrata,  Pursh.  Plant  3-8  in.:  leaves  rounded  heart-shaped,  serrate, 
the  upper  acuminate:  stipules  fringe-toothed,  lanceolate:  flowers  pale  violet, 
darker-veined:  petals  beardless:  spur  slender,  longer  than  corolla.  Moist 
woodland  and  shaded  hillsides. 

v.  canina,  Linn.  Stems  weak,  0-8  in.,  glabrous:  leaves  heart-shaped 
or  kidney-form,  margin  crenate:  stipules  lanceolate,  somewhat  fringe- 
toothed:  spur  slender,  %  as  long  as  corolla.  Swamps  and  wet  places.  Pale 
purple.     American  forms  differ  from  the  European. 

2.  Flowers  white,  tinged  with  pink  or  violet. 

V.  Canadensis,  Linn.  Upright,  G  in.  to  2  ft.:  stems  leafy,  stipules 
broad-lanceolate,  entire:  leaves  large,  heart-shaped,  serrate:  petals  white 
inside,  pinkish  or  violet  beneatli :  lateral  petals  bearded.  Common.  Rich 
woods.     All  summer. 

3.  Flowers  yellow. 

V.  pub6scens.  Ait.  Downy  yellow  violet.  Pubescent:  stems  erect  5-20 
in.,  leafy:  leaves  broadly  heart-shaped,  toothed:  stipules  large,  entire:  root 
leaves  soon  wither  up:  lower  petals  veined,  more  or  less  obscurely,  with 
purple:  spur  short:  stigma  beakless:  pod  downy.     Dry  woods. 

c.  Anmial,  biennial,  or  short-lived  perennial:  various  colors. 
V.  tricolor,  Linn.     Garden  pansy.     Stems    angula  ■,    branching,  leafy: 
leaves  roundish  to  cordate:  stipules  leaf  like,  incised:  flowers  widely  varied 
in  colors.     Europe,    Var.  arvensis,  in  fields,  is  slender,  and  petals  scarcely 
exceeding  sepals. 

XXn.  HYPERICACE^.     St.  John's-wort  Family. 

Herbs  or  shrubs  (in  our  species),  with  leaves  chiefly  sessile,  sim- 
ple, opposite,  some  with  translucent  or  black  dots:  flowers  regular, 
usually  in  terminal   cymes,   and  yellow:  sepals  and   petals  4  or  5: 


HYPERICACEiE — PORTULACACE^  339 

stamens  few  to  many,  often  in  clusters  of  3   or  5,  hypogynous:  pod 

1-  to  7-celled. 

HYPERICUM.     St.  John's  wort.     Figs.  192,  259. 

Mojstly  biiuiching  plants  with  yellow  flowers  in  cymes:  leaves  sessile, 
usiiall.v  (lotifd:   sepals  and  petals  5:   stamens  many,  mostly  in  3-5  groups. 

H.  perforatum,  Linn.  A  common  introduced  species:  stems  upright, 
1-3  ft.,  branching,  2-edged:  leaves  linear  to  oblong,  dotted,  sessile:  flowers 
about  1  in.  iu  diameter,  the  petals  dotted  with  black  and  much  exceeding  the 
lanceolate  se[>als:  stamens  grouped  in  3  sets:  capsule  3-celled.  Spreads 
l)y  running  shoots  from  base. 

H.  macul^tum,  Walt.  Much  like  preceding,  but  leaves  more  broadly- 
ol)long,  sepals  more  ovate,  and  the  petals  often  lined,  as  well  as  dotted,  with 
black. 

XXIII.    PORTULACACE.^.     Purslane  Family. 

Herbs  succulent  or  fleshy,  with  entire  leaves,  alternate  or  oppo- 
site, and  dry  stipules:  flowers  regular  but  not  symmetrical:  sepals  2: 
petals  4-5  or  none:  stamens  equal  to  number  of  petals  and  opiiosite, 
or  fewer,  or  more",  ovaries  free,  each  1-celled:  style  2-3-cleft,  or 
divided,  stigmatic  on  inner  surfaces:  fruit  a  1-eelled  pod,  opening 
loeulicidally,  or  a  pyxis,  opening  by  a  lid:  seeds  small,  kidney- 
shaped,  few  or  many. 

A.  Stamens  more  numerous  than  petals:  flowers  opening  once 

only,  in  sunshine 1.  Porfitlaca 

AA.  Stamens  5:  flowers  open  for  some  time 2.   Cluytonia 

1.  PORTULACA.     Purslane.     Fig.  254. 

Low,  fleshy  annuals,  diffuse  or  ascending:  terminal  flowers,  which  open 
once  only,  in  sunshine:  sepals  2,  joined  at  base  and  partially  adherent  to 
ovary:  petals  4-G  on  calyx,  not  lasting:  stamens  7-many,  on  calyx:  style 
3-8  parted. 

P.  oleracea,  Linn.  Common  purslane.  Pusley.  A  very  common  weed. 
Smooth,  fleshy,  prostrate:  stems  cylindrical,  reddish:  leaves  obovate  or 
wedge-form,  thick,  nearly  sessile:  flowers  small,  yellow,  sessile,  open  iu 
morning  sunshine.     Sometimes  used  for  greens. 

P.  grandifldra,  Lindl.  Bose-moss.  Stems  erect  3-6  in.,  fleshy,  smooth 
or  hairy:  leaves  alternate,  cylindrical,  3^-1  in.  long:  flowers  open  in  morn- 
ing: very  gay  colors,  white,  yellow,  reds,  1-2  in.  wide.  South  America. 
Gardens. 

2.  CLAYTONIA.     Spring  Beauty. 

Low,  glabrous,  perennial  herbs,  from  small  tubers:  flowers  lasting  some 
time:  sepals  2:  petals  5,  distinct  or  slightly  united:  stamens  5,  one  on  base 


340  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

of  each  petal:  style  3-lol)ed:  ovary  1-celled:  capsule  S-valved,  few-seeded: 
stem  erect,  usually  bearing  2  leaves  and  terminating  in  a  raceme.  Among 
the  first  spring  flowers  in  open  woods. 

C.  Virginica,  Linn.  Leaves  thickish,  linear-lanceolate,  3-6  in.  long, 
nearly  sessile:  stem  about  3  in.  from  tuberous  root,  bearing  2  (3  or  4  occa- 
sionally) leaves:  petals  white  or  pink  with  darker  veins,  emarginate  }4-% 
in.  long:   sepals  and  petals  obtuse. 

C.  Caroliniana.  .^lichx.  Leaves  1-2  in.  long,  oblong  or  oval  to  spatulate, 
short-petioled:   Howers  fewer  than  in  preceding,  white  or  pinkish,  veined. 


XXIV.    MALVACE^.    Mallow  Family. 

Herbs  or  shrubs  (trees  in  the  tropics)  with  alternate,  mostly 
simple  leaves  whicU  n;ive  stipules  :  flowers  perfect  and  regular, 
5-merous,  often  subtended  by  a  calyx-like  involucre,  the  petals 
5:  stamens  many,  united  in  a  column  which  closely  surrounds 
the  several  styles:  ovaries  several,  eonnivent  into  a  ring  or  some- 
times united  into  a  compound  pistil,  in  fruit  making  1- seeded 
1-loculed  more  or  less  indehiscent  carpels  or  a  several -loculed  cap- 
sule. About  60  genera  and  700  species.  Representative  plants  are 
mallow,  hollyhock,  abutilon,  hibiscus,  althea,  okra,  cotton. 

A.  Anthers  borne  only  at  the  top  of  the  stamen-tube. 

B.  Fruits  1-seeded,  forming  a  ring  at  the  base  of  the  styles. 

0.  Involucre  of  3  bracts 1.  Malva 

cc.  Involucre  of  6-9  bracts 2.  Althcea 

BB.  Fruit  of  several-seeded  carpels 3.  Abutilon 

AA.  Anthers  borne  all  along  the  side  of  the  stamen-tube .4.  Hibiscus 

1.  MALVA.     Mallow. 

Herbs,  with  a  3-leaved  involucre  like  an  extra  calyx:  petals  obcordate: 
carpels  many  in  a  ring,  separating  at  maturity,  1-seeded  and  indehiscent: 
leaves  usually  nearly  orbicular  in  general  outline. 

M.  rotundiJolia,  Linn.  Common  mallow.  Cheeses.  Fig.  224.  Trail- 
ing biennial  or  perennial,  rooting:  leaves  orbicular,  indistinctly  lobed, 
toothed  :  flowers  small,  white  or  pinkish,  clustered  in  the  axils.  Yards 
and   roadsides;  from  Europe.     A  common  weed. 

2.  ALTHJEA.    Marsh  Mallow. 

Differs  from  Malva  chiefly  in  having  a  6-9-cleft  involucre. 
A.  rbsea,    Cav.     Hollyhock.     Figs.  206,  207,  235.     Tall    perennial,  with 
angled  or  5-7-lobed  cordate  leaves,  and  large  flowers  in  many  colors.    China. 

3.  ABtTTILON.     Indian  Mallow.     Fig.  170. 

Mostly  shrubs,  often  with  maple-like  leaves,  and  no  involucre  to  the 
flower:  ovaries  and  fruita  several-seeded.     Contams  conservatory  plaats. 


MALVACE^— GERANIACE^  341 

A.  Btri&tum,  Dicks.  Flowering  maple.  Fig.  4ol.  Shrub:  leaves  3-5- 
lobed,  green:  flowers  drooping,  on  long  solitary  axillary  peduncles,  bell- 
shaped,  veiny-orange  or  red.  Brazil.  A  conservatory  and 
house  plant. 

A.  Thbrnpsoni,  Hon.     Spotted  flowering  maple.     Like  1 
last,  but  the  leaves  spotted    veith  yellow,  arid    the  column 
stamens    strongly   projecting   from   the    flower.     Common    in 
cultivation. 

A.  Avic6nn8B,  Gaertn.     Velvet  leaf.    Indian  mallow.   Stout 
annual,  3  or  4  ft.,  densely  pubescent:    flowers  yellow,  erect, 
on   peduncles    shorter  than  the  long   petioles:    leaves    large, 
roundish    heart-shaped,    taper  -  pointed,    and   velvety:    calyx    461. 
5-cleft:    carpels    12-15,  united,  pubescent,    beaked,    2-valve 
with  3-9  seeds  in  each  cell.     August  to  October.     Weed,  from  Asia. 
4.  HIBISCUS.     Rose  Mallow. 

Herbs  or  shrubs,  with  an  involucre  of  many  narrow  bracts:  stamen- 
column  anther-bearing  most  of  its  length:  styles,  5,  united:  pod  5-loculed, 
loculicidal:  flowers  large  and  showy. 

H.  Syrlacus,  Linn.  AltJiea  of  cultivated  grounds.  Hose  of  Sharon. 
Shrub  10  ft.:  leaves  wedge-ovate  and  3-lobed:  flowers  showy,  in  various 
colors,  in  the  leaf-axils  in  summer  and  fall,  often  double.     Asia. 


XXV.    GERANIACE^.    Geranium  Family. 

Herbs,  chiefly  with  simple  leaves:  flowers  perfect,  in  most  genera 
nearly  regular  (but  sometimes  very  irregular),  5-merous  :  stamens  as 
many  or  twice  as  many  as  the  sepals,  hypogynous:  ovary  single,  the 
locules  usually  as  many  as  the  sepals:  fruit  capsular.  A  most  diverse 
family,  often  divided  into  several.  There  are  about  20  genera  and  700 
species.  Common  examples  are  geranium,  pelargonium,  nasturtium, 
balsam,  jewel-weed  or  touch-me-not,  oxalis. 

A.  Flowers  regular  or  very  nearly  so. 
B.  Leaves  simple  (often  deeply  lobed). 

C.  Anther-bearing  stamens  10 1.  Geranium 

CO.  Anther-bearing  stamens  about  7 2.  Pelargonium 

BB.  Leaves  compound 3.  Oxalis 

AA.  Flowers  very  irregular. 

B.  Flower  with  one  very  long  spur 4.  Tropceolum 

BB.  Flower  hanging  by  its  middle, with  a  short  hooked  spur. 5.  Impatiens 

1.  GESANIUM.     Cranesbill. 

Small  herbs  with  forking  stems  and  1-3-flowered  peduncles:  sepals  and 
petals  5  :  glands  on  the  torus  5,  alternating  with  the  petals  :  stamens  10, 
usually  all  of  them  with  perfect  anthers  :  fruit  5  1-seeded  carpels  separat- 
ing from  the  axis  from  the  base  upwards  and  curling  outwards. 


342  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

G.  maculatum,  Linn.  Common  wild  cranesbill.  Fig.  18L  Perennial, 
1-2-ft.,  hairy  erect:  leaves  orbicular,  deeply  5-7-parted:  petals  entire,  hairy 
on  the  claw:  flower  rose-purple,  1  in.  across.     Common;  spring. 

Q.  Koberti^num,  Linn.  Herb  Robert.  Annual  or  biennial,  1  ft.  or  some- 
times less,  somewhat  hairy,  spreading:  leaves  3-  or  5-divided  into  pinnatifid 
divisions:  fls.  %  in.  or  less  across,  pink-red.     Moist  places;  common. 

2.  PELARGONIUM.     Geranium  of  gardens. 

Somewhat  fleshy,  strong-scented  plants,  differing  from  Geranium  in 
having  a  somewhat  2-lipped  corolla,  and  stamens  with  anthers  less  than  10. 

P.  hortdrum,  Bailey.  Garden  geranium.  Fish  geranium.  Fig.  183. 
Stem  somewhat  succulent  and  hairy:  leaves  orbicular  or  reniform,  crenate- 
lobed,  often  with  bands  of  different  colors:  flowers  in  umbel-like  clusters, 
deflexed  in  bud  of  many  colors,  often  double.  South  Africa,  but  of  hybrid 
origin. 

P.  peltatum,  Ait.  Ivy-leaved  geranium.  Trailing:  filaments  10,  some 
being  sterile:  petals  pink  or  white,  nearly  equal:  leaves  more  or  less  peltate, 
nearly  or  quite  smooth,  5-angled  or  -lobed. 

P.  odoratlssimum.  Ait.  Nutmeg  geranium.  Stems  somewhat  shrubby, 
and  the  branches  straggling,  thick,  and  softly  hairy:  leaves  small,  rounded, 
very  downy,  fragrant:   flowers  small,  white. 

P.  gravdolens.  Ait.  Sose  geranium.  Somewhat  shrubby :  filaments  10, 
some  sterile:  leaves  divided  palmately,  the  5  or  7  lobes  more  or  less  toothed, 
revolute  and  rough-edged:  petals  not  equal,  but  2  upper  larger:  flow- 
ers umbelled,  small,  pinkish  lavender,  veined  with  darker:  plant  very 
fragrant. 

3.  OXALIS.     OxALis.    Wood-sorrel. 

Low  often  tuberous  herbs  with  small  flowers  which  have  no  glands  on 
the  torus-disk:  leaves  digitate,  of  3  or  more  leaflets,  usually  mostly  radical: 
flowers  (opening  in  sun)  with  5  sepals  and  petals  and  10  somewhat  mona- 
delphous  stamens,  the  alternate  ones  shorter  :  pod  5-loculed,  often  opening 
elastically.     The  following  have  3  obcordate  leaflets,  closing  at  night. 

0.  stricta,  Sav.  Common  yellow  oxalis.  Fig.  273.  Stem  leafy  and 
branching:  peduncles  bearing  2-6  small  yellow  flowers.     Common  in  fields. 

0.  Acetos611a,  Linn.  Wood-sorrel.  Scape  2-5  in.  high,  from  a  creeping 
rootstock-  flowers  white  and  pink-veined.     Deep  woods. 

0.  viol^cea,  Linn.  Scape  5-10  in.  high  with  an  umbel  of  several  bright 
violet  flowers,  from  a  scaly  bulb.  Woods  south,  and  a  common  window- 
garden  plant. 

4.  TROPJSOLUM.     Nasturtium  of  gardens. 

Tender,  mostly  climbing  herbs  (by  means  of  leafstalks),  with  one  of  the 
5  petals  extended  into  a  long,  nectar-bearing  yellow  spur:  petals  usually  5, 
with  narrow  claws,  often  bearded:  stamens  8,  of  different  shapes:  carpels 
3,  indehiscent  in  fruit.  The  following  (from  Peru)  have  peltate  orbicular 
leaves  (Fig.  126). 


GEEANIACEiE— SAPINDACE^  343 

T.  m&jus,  Linn.  Climbing  nasturtium.  Tall-climbing:  flowers  yellow, 
red,  cream-white,  and  other  colors:  petals  not  pointed. 

T.  minus,  Linn.  Dwarf  nasturtium.  Fip:.  195.  Not  climbing  :  petals 
with   a  sharp  point. 

5.  IMPATIENS.    Touch-me-not.    Jewel-weed 

Soft  or  succulent  tender  herbs  with  simple  alternate  or  opposite  leaves 

and  very  irregular  flowers:   sepals  3  to  .5,  usually  4,  one  of  them  produced 

into  a  large  curving  spur  :    petals  apparently  2,  but  each 

consisting  of  a  united  pair  :    stamens  5  :    fruit   5-valved, 

elastically  discharging  the  seeds  (whence  the  names  "Im- 

patiens"and  "touch-me-not"). 

I.  Balsdmina,  Linn.    Garden  balsam.    Erect  and  stout, 

\-2}4.  ft.:  leaves  lanceolate,  toothed:  flowers  in  the  axils, 

of  many  colors,  often  full  double. 

-       ,.       ,.^  I.  bifldra,  Walt.  (/.  Adva,  Nutt.l.     Orange  jewel-weed. 

Impatiens  biflora. 

Fig.  462.    Tall  branching  plant  (2^  ft.)  with  alternate  oval 

or  long-oval  blunt-toothed  long-stalked  leaves:  flowers  %  in.  long,  horizon- 
tal and  hanging,  orange-yellow  with  a  red-spotted  lower  lip,  the  upper  lip 
less  spotted  and  of  one  piece,  the  two  green  sepals  at  the  apex  of  the  pedicel 
closely  appressed  to  the  tube,  the  tail  of  the  spur  curled  under  the  spur: 
pod  opening  elastically  when  ripe,  throwing  the  seeds  (the  .l  valves  quickly 
curling  from  above  downwards).  Common  in  swales. 
I.  ailrea,  Muhl.  (I.  pallida,  Nutt. ).  Yellow  jewel- 
weed.  Fig.  4G3.  Leaves  usually  stronger-toothed,  the 
teeth  usually  ending  in  sharp  points :  flowers  1  in.  long 
and  much  broader  than  those  of  I.  biflora,  clear  yellow, 
the  upper  lip  of  two  parts,  the  lower  also  of  two  parts 
and  nearly  horizontal,  the  2  sepals  at  apex  of  pedicel 
large  and  not  closely  appressed,  tail  shorter  :  pods  as  <^^^ 

in  the  other.     Less  common  than  the  other,  but  often  "" 

growing  with  it.  463.  Impatiens  aurea. 


XXVI.  SAPINDACE^.     Soapberry  or  Maple  Family. 

Trees  or  shrubs,  of  various  habit:  flowers  polypetalous  or  apeta- 
lous,  often  inconspicuous,  4-  or5-merous:  stamens  10  or  less,  borne 
on  a  fleshy  ring  or  disk  surrounding  the  single  2-3-loculed  pistil:  fiuit 
a  pod  or  samara.  A  various  family,  largely  tropical.  Genera  about 
75,  and  species  about  600  to  700.  Maple,  box-elder,  buckeye,  horse- 
chestnut,  bladder-nut,  are  familiar  examples. 

A.  Herb:    climbing   by    hook-like    tendrils    among  the 

flowers  in  the  cluster:  fruit  an  inflated  pcd 1.   C'ardiospermum 

AA.  Trees  and  shrubs. 


344 


THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 


B.  Trees  (or  tall  shrubs). 

C.  Leaves  simple  (more  or  less  palmately  lobed) 
or  (in  1  species)  3-5  pinnately  compound: 

fruit  a  samara  (with  2  winged  seeds) 2.  Acer 

CC.  Leaves  digitately  compound,  5-9  leaflets 3.  ^sculus 

BB.  Shrubs:   leaves  pinnately  3-7  compound:   fruit  a 

large  bladdery  pod 4.   Staphylea 

1.  CAEDIOSPfiRMUM.     Balloon-vine.     Heart-seed. 

Vines  climbiugiby  axillary,  hook-like  tendiils  among  flower  clusters: 
leaves  alternate,  biternate,  leaflets  toothed :  flowers  dioecious,  or  some  per- 
fect: sepals  4,  2  of  them  smaller:  petals  4,  irregular,  each  with  an  appen- 
dage at  inner  base:  stamens  8,  filaments  unequal:  style  short,  3-cleft:  ovary 
triangular,  S-cplled,  I  ovule  to  each  cavity:  capsule  membranous,  much 
inflated. 

C.  Halicacabum,  Linn.  Climbing  or  spreading  herb,  delicate  and 
slender:  leaflets  ovate-lanceolate,  acute,  cut  and  toothed:  flowers  small, 
•white:  fruit  large,  balloon-like,  decorative:  seeds  black  with  white  scar, 
hard,  round.     Cultivated.     Summer. 

2.  ACER.     Maple.     Box-elder. 

Trees  or  shrubs,  with  opposite  lobed  or  parted  leaves  (pinnate  in  box- 
elder)  :  flowers  small  and  greenish  or  reddish,  in  early  spring  and  often 
from  winter  buds,  in  box-elder  dicecious,  in  true  maples 
perfect  (or  imperfectly  diclinous) :  calyx  about  5-cleft: 
petals  5  or  none:  stamens  usually  3-8:  fruit  a  samara 
"^i^mlSe  £^f^J'  with  2  seeds  and  2  wings.  Two  shrubby  woods  maples 
are  common  in  some  parts  of  the  country. 

a.  Maples:   leaves  simple,  palmately  lobed. 
b.  Flowers  from  lateral  winter  huds,  preceding  the 
leaves:   fruit  ricAuring  very  early. 
A.  saccharinum,  Linn.  (A.  dasycarpnm,  Waugh). 
*64.  White  or  silver  maple.    Fig.  4G4.  Flow- 

Acer  saccharinum.  ^^^  greenish,  with  no  petals:  leaves 
very  deeply  5-lobed,  silvery  white  beneath,  the  narrow  iv>^> 
divisions  lobed  and  toothed:  fruit  with  large  spreading  f  ,^ 
■wings,  downy  when  young.  Common  along  streams  and  in 
low  grounds;  much  planted.  There  is  a  cut-leaved  form 
known  as  Wier's  maple,  popular  as  a  lawn  tree.  Wood 
white.  Linnaeus  thought  it  to  be  the  sugar  maple,  hence 
his  name  "saccharinum." 

A.  rtbrum,  Linn.    Bed,  soft,  or  swamp  maple.    Fig.  465.      -^.oer  rubrum. 
Tree  usually  of  only  medium  size:  flowers  red.  with  narrow-oblong  petals: 
leaves  rather  small,  not  deeply  3-5-lobed,  whitish  beneath,  the  lobes  serrate 
and  toothed:    fruit  with  nearly  parallel   or   slightly  spreading   wings,  not 
downy.     Low  grounds. 


SAPINDACE^  345 

bb.  Flowers  in  rlnsters,  with  the  leaves,  some  or  all  on  shoots  of 

the  season. 
A.  slccharum,  Marsh.  (A.  saccharintim  of  some).     Sugar,  hard,  or  rock 
maple.     Figs.  129,  4GG.     Flowers  greenish,  drooping,  on  long  pedicels,  the 
petals  none  and  the  calyx  hairy  at  the  top:  leaves 
bright  green,  firm,  cordate-orbicular  in  outline, 
3-Iobed  and  the  side  lobes  again  lobed,  all  lobes 
and  teeth  ending  in  points,  the  basal  sinus  broad 
and  open:    wings  of  fruit  somewhat  spreading. 
Commonest  of  maples  east. 

A.  nigrum,  Michx.  Black  sugar  maple.  ^^-  ^"^"^  saccharum. 
Fig.  467.  Foliage  dark  and  limp,  the  lobes  broad  and  shallow,  little  toothed 
and  with  only  blunt  points,  the  basal  sinus  nearly  or  quite  closed:  wings  of 
fruit  nearly  parallel,  large.  Eastern  Central 
States;  by  some  regarded  as  a  form  of  ^.  sac- 
chartim. 

A.  platanoides,  Linn.  Norway  maple.  Figs, 
75,  76,  77,  144, 296-303.  Flowers  late,  in  umbel- 
like clusters,  yellowish  green,  large,  with  both 
sepals  and  petals:  leaves  large  and  heavy,  3-5- 
lobed  and  much  toothed,  all  parts  ending  in  points  :  fruit  with  wide-spread- 
ing wings.     Europe.     Commonly  planted:  has  milky  juice. 

A.  Psetido-Platanus,  Linn.  Si/cainore  maple.  Tree  from  Europe,  and 
many  varieties  cultivated:  leaves  broad,  3-7-lobed,  glabrous  above,  whitish 
and  downy  below:  lobes  acute,  unequally  toothed:  racemes  terminal,  droop- 
ing: flowers  yellowish-green  :  ovaries  woolly:  fruit  downy,  the  wings 
rather  spreading. 

bbb.  Flowers  appearing  after  the  leaves,  in  racemes:  large  hushes  or  bush- 
like small  trees  in  cool  woods  and  ravines. 
a..  Pennsylvd,nicum.  Linn.  Striped  maple.  Moose-ivood.  Bark  smooth- 
ish,  light  green,  striped:  flowers  greenish,  in  terminal  drooping  loose 
racemes:  leaves  simple,  thin,  3-lobed  near  apex,  the  lobes  acuminate,  with 
finely  toothed  margin  all  round:  fruit  greenish,  smooth,  with  large,  widely 
diverging  wings.    Small  tree. 

A.  8picS,tum,  Lam.  Mountain  maple.  Shrub,  5-10  ft.,  usually  forming 
clumps:  bark  green,  not  striped:  flowers  appearing  after  leaves,  in  dense 
racemes,  upright,  compound,  small,  greenish,  leaves  slightly  3-5-lobed, 
coarsely  serrate:  fruit  with  narrow,  somewhat  divergent  wings. 
aa.  Box-elder;  leaves  pinnate. 
A.  Negundo,  Linn.  {Negundo  aceroides,  Moench).  Box-elder.  Tree 
with  greeu  glaucous  twigs  and  leaf-bases  covering  the  bubs:  flowers  in  long 
racemes,  dioecious,  with  4-5-cleft  calyx  and  no  corolla,  and  4-5  stamens,  the 
sterile  flowers  on  long,  slender  pedicels:  leaves  pinnate,  with  3-5  ovate- 
pointed  toothed  leaflets:  fruit  with  somewhat  incurving  wings.  Common: 
much  planted  in  cold  and  dry  regions  west. 


346  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

3.  ^SCULUS.    Horse  Chestnut.   Buckeye. 

Trees:  leaves  opposite,  on  long  petioles,  palmately  compound,  5-7-folio- 
liate:  flowers  irregular,  in  a  terminal  panicle,  some  often  imperfect,  most  of 
them  with  some  imperfect  pistils  and  stamens:  calyx  5-toothed:  corolla 
irregular,  with  4  or  5  clawed  petals:  stamens  5-8,  usually  7:  fruit  a  leathery 
capsule,  smooth  or  spiny,  2-3-valved,  each  valve  containing,  usually,  one 
seed  only:  seed  large,  with  shiny  brown  coat  and  a  large,  round,  pale  scar, 
not  edible. 

JE.  Hippocdstanum,  Linn.  Common  horse-cliesfiint.  See  Figs.  18^,  2  1. 
Buds  noticeably  large  and  resinous:  leaf-scars  large,  horseshoe-shaped: 
leaves  large,  palmately  compound,  usually  with  7  leaflets:  leaflets  obovate, 
abruptly  pointed  at  tip:  corolla  of  5  petals,  white,  spotted  with  purple  and 
yellow:  stamens  long,  exserted:  fruit  prickly.    Blooms  June  to  July. 

S.  rubicunda,  Lois.  Hed  horse  chestnut.  Small,  round-headed  tree, 
I'.ultivated:  leaflets  5-7:  petals  4:  broad,  on  slender  claws,  ro-e-red:  stamens 
usually  8. 

M.  glabra,  Willd.  Ohio  buckeye.  Tall  tree,  native  in  woods  and  along 
river  banks,  west  of  Alleghanies:  bark  rough  and  ill-scented  when  peeled  or 
bruised:  leaflets  5,  oval  or  oblong:  acuminate:  flowers  small,  in  short  panicle: 
petals  4,  narrow,  on  claws,  nearly  equal,  erect,  pale  yellow:  stamens  longer 
th.'in  petals:  fruit  prickly  at  first.    April,  May. 

M.  flS,va,  Ait.  Sweet  buckeye.  Large  tree,  rarely  shrubby:  bark  dark 
brown,  scaly:  leaflets  usually  5,  sometimes  7:  flowers  yellow:  calyx  oblong: 
petals  4,  very  unequal,  long-clawed,  connivent,  longer  than  stamens:  fruit 
glabrous.    Rich  woods  West  and  South.    April  and  May. 

M.  Pavia,  Linn.  Hed  buckeye.  Shrub  or  small  tree,  3-10  ft.,  found  in 
fertile  soil  West  and  South:  flowers  red:  calyx  tubular:  petals  4,  unequal, 
longer  than  the  stamens:  fruit  nearly  smooth. 

4.  STAPHYLfiA.     Bladder-nut. 

Upright  shrubs  with  opposite  leaves,  pinnately  compound,  with  3-7  leaf- 
lets, stipulate:  flowers  small,  white,  in  drooping  clusters:  sepals,  petals  and 
stamens  5:  styles  2-3:  capsule  a  large  bladdery  pod,2-3-lobed,  2-3celled, 
each  cell  several-seeded. 

S.  trifdlia,  Linn.  Shrub  6-10  ft.,  in  thickets,  in  moist  soil:  leaflets  3, 
ovate,  acuminate,  serrate,  stipules  deciduous:  flowers  bell-like,  white,  in 
clusters  at  ends  on  branchlets. 


XXVII.    POLYGALACE^.     Milkwort  Family. 

Herbs  or  shrubs,  with  leaves  mostly  simple,  entire,  without 
stipules,  and  flowers  irregular  and  perfect.  Represented  by  the 
genus 


POLYGALACE^ — LEGUMINOS^  347 

POLYGALA.     Milkwort. 

Mostly  herbs,  with  bitter  juice:  flowers  very  irregular,  some  often 
cleistogamous:  sepals  5,  unequal,  2  of  them  winged  and  colored  (petal  like) : 
petals  3,  usually  united  into  a  tube,  the  middle  petal  hooded  or  crested,  or 
otherwise  appendaged:  stamens  6  or  8,  the  filaments  usually  monadelphous, 
but  the  sheath  split,  more  or  less  connate,  within  or  hidden  in  the  middle 
petal:  ovary  2-celled.  The  irregularity  of  the  flowers  makes  some  of  the 
species  conspicuous,  but  others  have  very  minute  flowers,  difficult  to 
examine. 

i .  paucifdlia,  Willd.  Frivged  pohjqala.  Flowering  wintergreen.  The 
most  striking  of  the  common  milkworts,  the  flower  being  large  (about  1  in. 
long)  and  showy,  rose-purple,  with  a  fine,  fringed  crest  on  the  central 
corolla  lobe:  plant  low,  3-4  in.  high,  branching,  from  a  creeping  rootstock, 
with  oval  petiolate  leaves  clustered  near  the  tips  of  the  stems,  the  lower 
leaves  scale-like:  there  are  small,  whitish  and  fertile  (cleistogamous)  flowers 
on  the  rootstock.     In  moist,  rich  woodland.     East  and  North. 

P.  S6nega,  Linn.  Seneca  snakeroot.  Flowers  small  in  terminal,  slender, 
spike-like  racemes:  stem  erect,  8-15  in.,  simple  and  leafy:  leaves  lanceolate, 
alternate:  flowers  white,  or  greenish,  on  very  short  pedicels:  corolla  with 
small  crest.     Perennial. 


XXVIII.  LEGUMINOS^.     Pulse,  or  Pea  Family. 

Herbs,  shrubs,  or  trees,  mostly  with  pinnately  compound  alter- 
nate leaves:  flower  papilionaceous  in  the  species  described  below, 
fruit  typically  a  legume.  A  vast  family  and  widely  dispersed,  with 
many  tropical  species.  Genera  about  400,  and  species  about  6,500. 
By  some  authors,  the  species  with  papilionaceous  flowers  are  separated 
into  the  family  Papilionacea?,  and  those  of  the  acacia  tribes,  with 
regular  flowers,  as  the  Mimosacese.  Familiar  leguminous  plants  are 
pea,  bean,  lupine,  clover,  alfalfa,  vetch,  wistaria,  locust,  red- bud. 

A.  Shrubs,  twining 1.    Wistaria 

AA.  Trees,  or  erect  shrubs. 

B.  Leaves   once   or  twice   pinnately  compound:   flowers 

in  racemes:  often  large  trees. 

C.  Flowers    truly    papilionaceous,    rather   large    and 

showy,  usually    fragrant:    leaves  with    sharp 

spines  or  prickles  often  in  place  of  stipules...  2.  Rohinia 

cc.  Flowers   small,    greenish    and   inconspicuous,  not 

truly  papilionaceous:  tree  usually  armed  with 

large  pronged  thorns 3.   Gleditschia 

BB.  Leaves  simple,  entire:  corolla  not  truly  papilionace- 
ous: fls.  in  umbel-like  clusters,  before  the  leaves  4.   Cercis 


348  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

AAA.  Herbs 

B.  Plant  climbing  by  tendrils. 

c.  Calyx  leafy-lobed 5.   Pisum 

CC.  Calyx  not  leafy-lobed. 

D.  Style  flattened,  bearded  down  1  side 6.  Lathijrus 

DD.  Style  slender,  with  a  tuft  of  hairs  at  apex  only, 

or  about  the  upper  part 7.    Vicia 

BB.  Plant  not  tendril-bearing:   leaves  compound. 

D.  The   leaves   3-foliolate    (sometimes    simple   in 
No.  9). 
E.  Leaves  digitately  compound. 

F.  Stamens  diadelphous  (9  and  10),  and  the 

flowers  in  heads,  or  spikes 8.   Trifolium 

FF.  Stamens  10,  distinct:  flowers  in  racemes.  9.  Baptisia 
EE.  Leaves    pinnately    compound    (terminal    1- 
stalked,  and  the  stalk  jointed),  3  leaflets. 
F.  Flowers  small,  in  a  long  raceme. 

G.  Pod  straight,  exceeding  calyx:  flowers 

small,  in  very  slender  racemes. .10.  Melilotus 
GG.  Pods  curved    or  coiled :   fls.  small    to 

medium,  in  heads  or  short  spikes. 11.  Medicago 
FF.  Flowers  medium  to  large,  clustered  at  the 
ends  of  the  raceme. 
G.  Keel  of  the  corolla  coiled  into  a  spiral.  12.  Phaseolus 

GG.  Keel  curved  but  not  coiled 13.    Vigna 

DD.  The  leaves  more  than  3-folioliate,  or  digitately 
compound. 

E.  Digitately  compound,  5-7  leaflets 14.  Lupinus 

EE    Pinnately  compound. 

F.  Even-pinnately  compound:  many  leaflets: 

flowers  yellow 15.   Cassia 

FF.  Odd-pinnate  (sometimes  3  leaflets)  of  .5-7 

leaflets:  flowers  purplish  or  lavender.  16.  Apios 

1.  WISTARIA. 

Tall  shrubby  twiner,  producing  long,  dense  racemes  of  showy  flowers: 
leaves  pinnate,  with  several  or  many  leaflets:  2  upper  calyx-teeth  shorter: 
standard  large  and  roundish:  pod  knotty,  several-seeded. 

W.  Chin^nsis,  DC.  Wistaria.  Popular  climber  for  porches,  from 
China,  with  large  drooping  racemes  of  bright  blue  (sometimes  white)  pea- 
like flowers  in  spring  and  summer. 

2.  ROBlNIA.    Locust. 

Trees  or  large  shrubs  with  compound,  odd-pinnate  leaves,  with  stipules 
or  stipular  spines,  the  base  of  the  leaf-stalk  covering  the  next  year's  bud: 
fliwers  showy,  pea-like,  hanging  in  axillary  racemes:  calyx  5-cleft:  standard 
of  the  corolla  large,  turned  back,  enclosing  side  petals  in  bud. 


LEGUMINOS^  349 

K.  Pseudacd,cia,  Linn.  Common  black  locust.  Tree,  native  West  and 
Soutli,  everj'wliere  introduced  and  valuable  for  timber.  Bark  nearly  black, 
very  rough:  stiff  spines  at  base  of  each  leaf:  leaflets  9-19,  ovate  or  oval, 
somewhat  mucronate  at  tip,  on  short  stalks:  racemes  3-5  in.  long,  from 
axils,  pendulous,  slender  and  loose,  the  flowers  white,  very  fragrant:  pod 
smooth,  4-7-seeded. 

R.  viscdsa,  Vent.  Small  tree, native  to  southern  states:  cultivated:  leaf- 
stalks, branchlets  and  pods  grandular-viscid  (clammy):  prickles  short: 
flowers  roseate,  in  dense,  erect  racemes.    April  to  June. 

R.  hispida  Linn.  Bose  acacia.  A  straggling  shrub,  to  10  ft.:  branches, 
stalks,  and  pods  bristly  with  flexible  red  spines:  flowers  pink,  handsome,  in 
loose  pendulous  racemes.  Native  of  southern  mountains.  Cultivated.  May 
to  June. 

3.  GLEDlTSCHIA.    Honey  Locust. 

Trees,  thorny  with  stout  branching  spines  on  branches  and  usually  on 
trunk:  leaves  abruptly  pinnate,  frequently  bi-pinnate,  and  all  gradations 
often  on  same  leaf:  flowers  in  axillary,  spicate  racemes,  greenish,  inconspicu- 
ous, some  imperfect,  not  papilionaceous:  calyx-tube  short,  3-5  cleft:  petals 
3-5,  nearly  equal,  inserted  on  calyx-tube:  stamens  3-10,  distinct,  inserted  on 
petals:  fruit  a  large,  leathery,  flat  pod,  elongated,  containing  1-many  seeds. 

G.  triacdnthos,  Linn.  Large  tree  with  hard  and  heavy  wood:  pods,  6-18 
in.  long,  an  inch  or  so  wide,  twisted  or  hoop-like,  filled  with  sweetish  pulp 
between  the  several-  to  many-smooth,  shiny  seeds. 

4.  CfiRCIS.  Redbitd. 

Small  trees  with  simple,  rounded,  heart-shaped  leaves  and  tiny  stipules 
soon  falling:  flowers  roseate-purple,  in  numerous  small  clusters  along 
branches,  even  on  trunk,  before  leaves,  thus  giving  the  tree  a  striking 
appearance:  calyx  5-toothed,  canipanulate:  corolla  irregular,  not  papil  o- 
naceous;  petals  5  and  standard  enclosed  by  wings:  stamens  10,  distinct: 
legume  oblong,  flat,  many-seeded,  margined  on  one  edge. 

C.  Canadensis,  Linn.  Bedbud.  Judas  tree.  Native  small  tree  of  Middle 
and  Southern  states,  10-30  ft.  high,  irregularly  branching:  bark  smooth  and 
dark.    Cultivated  as  ornamental  tree,  April,  May. 

5.  PlSUM.    Pea. 

Slender  herbs,  climbing  by  tendrils  which  are  homologous  with  leaflets: 
leaves  pinnate,  with  1-3  pairs  of  foliar  leaflets,  and  very  large,  leafy  stipules: 
lobes  of  calyx  leafy;  flowers  large,  white,  or  pink,  on  axillary  peduncles:  pod 
a  typical  legume,  several-seeded. 

P.  sativum,  Linn.  Garden  pea.  Figs.  190,  284.  Smooth  and  glaucous: 
leaflets  usually  2  pairs,  broad-oval:  peduncles  2-  or  more-flowered.  Old 
World. 

6.  LATHYRUS.    Vetchling. 

Much  like  Pisum,  differing  chiefly  in  very  technical  characters,  but  best 
told  in  general  by  the  narrow  leaflets  and  pods,  and  not  leafy  calyx. 


350  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

L.  odoritus,  Linn.  Sweet  pea.  Figs.  165.  222.  Annual,  the  stem  hairy: 
leaflets  one  pair,  narrow-oval  or  oblong:  flowers  2  or  3  on  a  long  peduncle, 
very  fragrunt,  in  many  colors.    Southern  Europe. 

L.  latifolius,  Linn.  Everlasting  pea.  Fig  246.  Perennial  of  long  dura- 
tion, sniootli,  the  slems  winged;  leaflets  one  pair,  long-oval:  flowers  many 
in  a  dense  cluster  on  long  peduncles,  rose-purple  and  white.    Europe. 

7.  VlCIA.     Vetch.     Tare. 

Herbs,  mostly  trailing  or  climbing  by  tendrils  from  the  ends  of  pin- 
nately  compound  leaves:  leaflets  usually  many,  entire  or  emarginate: 
stipules  half-sagittate:  flowers  in  axillary  racemes  or  pairs:  calyx  somewhat 
oblique,  5-toothed:  wings  adhering  to  keel:  style  slender,  bent,  hairy  or  with 
hairy  ring  beneath  stigma:  pods  flat,  2-valved,  2-several-seeded. 

V.  Americana,  Mulil.  Perennial,  smooth:  leaflets  10-M,  oblong,  blunt: 
peduncles  4-8-flowered:  flowers  purplish-blue,  %-%  in.  long.     Moist  soil. 

V.  Cricca,  Linn.  Perennial,  more  or  less  pubescent,  with  weak  stems: 
leaflets  12-24,  oblong  to  linear,  mucronate:  racemes:  many-flowered, 
1-sided,  spike-like,  on  axillary  peduncles:  flowers  blue  to  purple,  %-K  in. 
long.     Dryish  soil. 

V.  sativa,  Linn.  Spring  vetch.  Annual,  rather  pubescent,  not  climbing: 
leaflets,  5-7  pairs,  oblong  or  obovate,  to  linear,  obtuse  or  retuse  or  mucro- 
nate: flowers  in  pairs,  from  axils,  nearly  sessile,  violet-purple,  %-l  in. 
long:  pod  smooth,  linear,  5-10-seeded.     Cultivated  or  wild:  from  Europe. 

V.  villosa,  Roth.  Hairy  or  winter  vetch.  Difl'use,  very  hairy:  flowers 
showy  in  long  axillary  racemes,  deep  purple:  seeds  small  and  black.  Culti- 
vated and  escaped.  Europe.  Annual  and  biennial,  perhaps  sometimes 
perennial. 

8.  TRIFOLIUM.     Clover. 

Annual  or  perennial  herbs  with  digitate  leaves  of  3  leaflets  (all  3  leaflets 
joined  directly  to  top  of  petiole):  flowers  small,  with  bristle-form  calyx- 
teeth,  in  dense  heads:  fruit  a  1-  to  few-seeded  little  pod  which  does  not 
exceed  the  calyx. 

a.  Flowers  sessile  in  the  dense  heads. 

T.  prat6nse,  Linn.  Common  red  clover.  Fig.  82.  Erect,  1-2  ft.,  with 
oval  or  obovate  leaflets,  which  have  a  pale  spot  or  band  near  the  center 
and  usually  a  notch  at  the  end:  flowers  rose-red,  honey-sweet,  the  heads 
closely  surrounded  by  leaves.  Europe,  but  common  everywhere  in  the 
North. 

T.  medium,  Linn.  Medium  red  clover.  Larger,  the  stem  less  straight, 
the  leaflets  oblong,  entire  and  with  a  spot:  head  stalked  above  the  upper- 
most leaves.     Otherwise  like  the  last. 

T.  arv^nse,  Linn.  Rahhit- foot  clover.  Annual;  5-10  in.,  erect:  flowers 
sessile  in  dense,  cylindrical  heads,  which  become  very  soft  and  grayish, 
fur  like,  from  the  silky  plumose  calyx-teeth:  corolla  insignificant,  whitish. 
Dry,  sandy  soils:  introduced  from  Europe. 


LEGUMINOSiE 


351 


aa.  Flowers  short-stalked  in  the  heads. 

T.  h^bridum,  Linn.     Alsike  clover.     Slender,  from  a  prostrate  base,  1-3 

fr. :  leaflets  obcorclate:  head  small  and  globular,  liglit  rose-colored.    Europe. 

T.  rdpens,  Linn.      White  clover.     Small,  the    stems    long-creeping   and 

sending  up  flowering  stems  3-12  in.  high:  leaflets  obeordate:  heads  small, 

white.     Common;  native,  also  European. 

T.  incarnatum,  Linn.  Crimson  clover.  Fig.  408.  Stout, 
hairj',  erect  plant,  I-'IY^  ft.,  with  obovate-oblong  leaflets  and 
brilliant  crimson  flowers  in  a  long  stalked  head.  Europe;  now 
frequently  cultivated. 

T.  refl6xum,  Linn.  Buffalo  clover.  Annual  or  biennial, 
pubescent,  ascending  8-18  in.:  standard  purple,  keel  and  wings 
whitish:  leaflets  oval  or  obovate,  tinely  toothed.  Most  common 
in  (Central  States,  from  Western  New  York. 

T.  prociimbens,  Linn.  Hop  clover.  Annual,  slender,  procum- 
bent or  upright  to  6  or  12  in. :  flowers  yellow,  turning  brown  and 
dry  when  old,  finally  reflexing:  standard  striate:  heads  small, 
rounded,  20-40  flowered:  leaflets  wedge-shaped  and  notched  at 
end,  terminal  one  stalked,  stipules  ovate.  June.  Dry  soil, 
■108.  introduced. 

Trifolium  x.  agfrarium.    Linn.     Hop   clover.     Larger:    leaflets    ovate- 

incaniatura.    oi,i,„)g.^  t|,j,  terminal  one  not  stalked,  and  stipules  narrow  and 
joined  for  half  their  length  to  the  petiole.     Introduced. 

9.  BAPTtSIA.     False  Indigo. 

Perennial  herbs:  leaves  palmately  3-foliolate,  with  stipules,  (or,  simple, 
sessile,  exstipulate,  perfoliate  leaves) :  flowers  racemed: 
calyx  4-5-toothed:  standard  erect,  rounded,  the  sides 
rolling  back:  keel  and  wings  oblong,  nearly  straight: 
stamens  10,  distinct:  pod  stalked  in  a  persistent  calyx, 
pointed,  inflated,  many-seeded.  Plants  usually  black- 
ened in  drying. 

B.  tinctdria,  R.  Br.  Bushy,  erect  to  2  ft.,  some- 
what glaucous:  leaves  sessile  or  nearly  so,  with  tiny 
deciduous  stipules;  leaflets  small,  entire,  wedged-ovate: 
racemes  many,  terminal,  loosely  few  flowered :  flowers 
yellow,  about  K  in.  long,  papilionaceous.  Dry  soil  in 
woods. 

10.  MELILOTUS.    Sweet  Clover. 
Tall  erect  annuals  or  biennials,  with  sweet-scented 

herbage  and  small  white  or  yellow  flowers  in  numerous 
open  racemes:  leaflets  3,  oblong:  pod  ovoid,  somewhat 
exceeding  the  calyx,  1-2-seeded. 

M.  ilba,  Linn.  White  sweet  clover.  Bokhara 
clover.     Two  to  5  ft.  tall,    smooth  :    leaflets    truncate: 


352 


THE     KINDS    OF     PLANTS 


470.  Medicago  sativa. 


flowers  white,  the  standard  longer  than  other  petals.     Europe;  common  on 
roadsides. 

M.  officinalis,  Linn.     Yellow  sweet  clover.     Fig.  469.     Leaflets  obtuse: 
flowers  yellow.     Less  common  than  the  other. 

11.  MEDICAGO.    Medick. 
Clover  like  plants    with  small    flowers  in  heads  or 

short  spikes  and  toothed  leaflets:  particularly  dis- 
tinguished by  the  curved  or  coiled  pod. 

M.  sativa,  Linn.  Alfalfa.  Lucerne.  Fig.  470. 
Erect  perennial,  with  ovate-oblong  leaflets  and  short 
spikes  or  dense  racemes  of  blue  purple  flowers.  Eu- 
rope, but  grown  for  fc  rage. 

M.  lupulina,  Linn.  Hop  clover.  Black  medick. 
Trailing  clover  like  plant,  with  obovate  leaflets  and  yel- 
low flowers  in  heads  or  very  short  spikes:  pod  black 
when  ripe.     Europe;  common  weed  East. 

12.  PHASfiOLTJS.    Bean. 

Tender  herbs,  often  twining,  the  flowers  never  yellow,  and  the  pinnate 
leaves  of  3  leaflets:   flowers  usually  in  clusters  on  the  joints  of  the  raccnio 
or  at  the  end  of  the  peduncle,  the  keel  (in- 
closing the   essential  organs)  coiling  into 
a  spiral:  fruit  a  true  legume. 

P.   Vlilg&,ris,    Linn.       Common    beau. 

Figs.  282-3,  285-G,  471.     Annual:   twining 

(the  twining  habit  bred  out  in  the  "bush 

beans"):  leaflets  ovate,  the    lateral   ones  472.  Phuscolus 

unequal-sided:  flowers  white  or  purplish,       iunatus. 

the  racemes  shorter  than  the  leaves:  pods  narrow  and 

nearly  straight.     Probably  from  tropical  America. 

471.  Phaseolus  vulgaris.  P.  lunatus,  Linn.     Lima  bean.     Fig.  472.     Annual: 

tall-twining  (also  dwarf  forms):  leaflets  large:  flowers 

whitish,  in  racemes  shorter  than  the  leaves:  pods   flat   and   curved,  with  a 

few  large  flat  seeds.     South  America. 

P.  multifldrus,  Willd.  Scarlet  runner  bean.  Peren- 
nial in  warm  countries  from  a  tuberous  root,  tall-twin- 
ing :  leaflets  ovate  :  flowers  bright  scarlet  (white  in 
the  "Dutch  Case-knife  bean")  and  showy,  the  racemes 
exceeding  the  leaves:  pod  long  and  broad  but  not  flat. 
Tropical  America;  cultivated  for  ornament  and  for  food. 

13.  VlGNA.    Cow-pea.  47 

Vigna 
Differs  from  Phaseolus  chiefly  in  technical  charac-  Sinensis, 

ters,  one  of  which  is  the  curved  rather  than  coiled  keel 
of  the  flower. 


LEGUMINOS^— ROSACEA  353 

V.  Sinensis,  Endl.  Cow-pea.  Black  pea.  Sto:k  pea.  Fig.  473.  Long- 
trailing  or  twining,  tender  annual:  leaflets  narrow-ovate;  flowers  white  or 
pale,  2  or  3  on  the  apex  of  a  very  long  peduncle,  the  standard  rounded;  pod 
slender  and  long,  cj'lindrical:  seed  (really  a  beau  raiher  tbau  pea;  small, 
short-oblong.     China,  Japan;  much  grown  South  for  forage. 

14.  LUPIN  US.    Lupine. 

Low  herbs:  leaves  palmately  compound,  5-15-folioliate,  rarely  simple: 
flowers  showy,  in  terminal  spikes  or  racemes:  calyx  decidedly  2 -lipped: 
standard  round,  sides  rolled  backward:  keel  incurved,  sickle-like:  wings 
lightly  united  above  keel:  stamens  inonadelphous,  with  3  alternate  an- 
thers, dift'erent  in  size  and  shape  from  others:  pod  oblong,  flattened,  often 
knotty. 

L.  per^nnis,  Linn.  Perennial,  somewhat  downy:  stem  erect  to  1  or  IK 
ft.:  leaflets  7-11,  large,  radiating,  nearly  sessile,  oblanceolate,  mucronate: 
stipules  small:  flowers  blue  or  whitish,  in  loose  racemes:  pod  linear-oblong, 
hairy,  5-6-seeded.    Sandy  soil.    May  to  June. 

1.').  CASSSIA.    Senna.   Fig.  223. 

Ours  herbs  with  odd-pinnate,  compound  leaves  and  yellow  flowers:  sepals 
5,  nearly  equal:  coi-oUa  not  paplionaceous,  nearly  regular:  petals  5:  stamens 
5-10,  some  anthers  usually  imperfect:  pod  often  curved,  many-seeded. 

U.  Marilindica,  Linn.  Smooth  perennial,  3-4  ft. :  leaflets  6-9  pairs,  lance- 
olate-oblong, mucronate,  with  a  gland  at  or  near  base  of  petiole:  stipules 
deciduous:  stamens  10,  3  imperfect,  with  deformed  anthers,  the  anthers 
black:  flowers  showy  yellow,  short,  axillary  racemes.    Summer. 

16.  APIOS.    Groundnut, 

Perennial,  twining  herb,  with  edible  underground  tubers:  leaves  pin- 
nately  3-7-foliate:  flowers  in  short,  dense,  often  branching  axillary  racemes: 
calyx  rather  2-lipped:  standard  broad  and  reflexed :  keel  strongly  incurved, 
pushing  into  the  standard,  and  finally  coiled  or  twisted. 

A,  tuberdsa,  Moench.  Flowers  brownish  purple,  sweet-scented,  in  dense 
racemes  about  1-3  in.  long:  no  tendrils:  juice  milky.  Summer.  In  low, 
moist  ground  and  shady  woods. 


XXIX.   ROSACE.E.    Rose  Family 

Herbs,  shrubs  and  trees,  much  like  the  Saxifragaccas:  leaves 
alternate,  mostly  with  stipules  (which  are  often  deciduous):  flowers 
mostly  perfect  and  polypetalous,  the  stamens  usually  perigynous, 
mostly  numerous  (more  than  20)  :  pistils  1  to  many:  fruit  an  akene, 
follicle,  berry,  drupe,  or  accessory.  A  very  mixed  or  polymorphous 
family,  largely  of  temperate  regions,  of  about  75  genera  and  1,200 
species.  By  some  writers,  divided  into  three  or  four  families.   Common 

W 


354  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

rosaceous   plants   are    rose,   strawberry,   apple,    pear,   plum,    peach, 
cherry,  blackberry,  raspberry,  spirea,  cinquefoil. 

A.  Herbs. 

B.  Torus  not  enlarging. 

c.  Carpels  many,  in  a  head. 

D.  Style  deciduous 1.  Potentilla 

DD.  Style  persistent  on  akene,  usually  jointed  and 

plumose  2.   Geum 

cc.  Carpels  2:  calyx  prickly  and   lobes   closing  over 

the  fruit :  1  or  2  akenes 3.  Agrimonia 

BB.  Torus   becoming  fleshy:    flowers    directly  from   the 

crown  or  root 4.  Fragaria 

AA.  Shrubs  or  trees. 

B.  The  ovary  1,  superior:  fruit  a  drupe 5.  Prunus 

BB.  The  ovaries  more  than  1. 

0.   Fruit  1-seeded  drupes  aggregated,  or  akenes. 
D.  Ovaries  many,  free  from  calyx  and  torus,  be- 
coming drupelets (i.  Bitbiis 

DD.  Ovaries  5-8:   shrubs  not  prickly:  leaves  sim- 
ple :  flowers  yellow :  fruit  akenes 7.  Kerria 

cc.  Fruit  akenes  inside  a  hollow  torus 8.  Rosa 

ccc.  Fruit  a  pome:  ovaries  usually  5,  immersed  in  the 
torus. 
D.  Petals  oblong-spatulate:  carpels  3-5-eelled,  but 

appearing  about  10-celled 9.  Amelanchier 

DD.   Petals  rounded:  ovaries  5. 

E.  Pome  with  2-seeded  carpels 10.  Pyrus 

EE.  Pome  with  many-seeded  carpels 11.  Cydonia 

EEE.  Pome  with  1-5  stony  kernels 12.   Cratitgus 

cccc.  Fruit  2-8  dry  follicles,  each  several-seeded IH.  Spircea 

1.  POTENTlLLA.   Five  Finger.    Cinquefoil, 

Herbs  (sometimes  shrubby)  with  flat  deeply  5-cleft  calj'x  and  5  bracts 
beneath  it,  and  5  obtuse,  mostly  yellow  or  white  petals:  stamens  many:  fruit 
an  akene,  of  which  there  are  many  in  a  little  head  on  the  small,  dry  torus: 
leaves  compound. 

P.  Norv6gica,  Linn.  An  erect  (1-2  ft.  tall)  very  hairy  and  coarse  annual, 
with  3  obovate,  or  oblong  serrate  leaflets  and  small  flowers  in  which  the  yel- 
low corolla  is  usually  not  so  large  as  the  calyx.    Common  weed. 

P.  Canad6ii8i8,  Linn.  Common  five-finger.  Trailing,  strawberry  -  like, 
with  five  narrow  leaflets,  but  the  lateral  ones  deeply  lobed:  flowers  solitary, 
on  axillary  peduncles,  bright  yellow.    Fields:  common. 

P.  arg^ntea,  Linn.  Perennial,  with  stem  prostrate,  branching  above, 
white- woolly:  leaflets  5,  wedge -oblong,  green  above,  white  -  pubescent 
beneath,  with  a  few  large,  incised  teeth,  and  margins  revolute:  flowers 
small,  cymose,  yellow:  stamens  about  20.   June  to  September,  in  dry  soil. 


ROSACEA  355 

p.  frnticdsa,  Linn.  Stem  erect  (1-2  ft.),  shrubby,  diffusely  branched: 
leaves  pinnate,  with  5-7  sessile  leaflets,  margins  entire,  revolnte:  flowers 
axillary:  petals  yellow,  orbicular,  and  longer  than  calyx,  1  in.  broad. 
Marshy  and  wet  ground.   June  to  September. 

2.  GfiUM.    AvENS. 

Perennial,  erect  herbs,  with  odd-pinnate  or  lyrate  leaves,  with  stipules: 
flowers  resembling  those  of  Potentilla:  calyx  5-cleft  with  five  alternate 
bracts:  stamens,  many:  akenes  numerous,  aggregated  on  a  conical  recep- 
tacle, with  long  persistent  styles  jointed,  or  bent,  or  plumose. 

G.  rivals,  Linn.  Stems  erect,  1  to  2  ft.,  several-flowered:  root  leaves 
lyrate,  and  irregularly  pinnate,  petioled:  stem  leaves  few,  usually  of  3 
leaflets,  or  3-lobed:  flowers  few,  large,  nodding,  the  calyx  purplish,  the 
petals  clawed,  erect,  yellowish-purple:  styles  purplish,  jointed  and  bent  in 
middle,  stigmas  plumose:  fruit  stalked  in  the  calyx.   May  to  July.    Bogs. 

G.  Alburn,  Gmelin.  From  2  to  3  ft.,  with  stem  erect,  branching,  smooth 
or  downy:  root  leaves  of  3-5  leaflets,  or  simple  with  smaller  leaflets  at 
base:  stem  leaves  few,  simple,  lobed,  or  3-divided  or  toothed  and  short- 
petioled:  flowers  whitish,  the  petals  not  longer  than  sepals:  head  of 
fruits  sessile  in  the  calyx:  styles  jointed  and  bent  near  middle,  the  upper 
part  hooked:  torus  bristly.   Late  spring  and  summer, 

G.  Virgini&,num,  Linn.  Differs  from  preceding  in  being  hirsute:  root- 
leaves  various,  but  pinnate,  with  a  very  large  rounded  terminal  leaflet;  the 
upper  leaves  mostly  3-parted:  flowers  white  or  pale  yellow:  receptacle 
not  bristly:  heads  of  fruits  on  short,  stout,  hairy  stalks.  Low  ground. 
Summer. 

3.  AGRIMONIA.    Agrimony. 

Perennial,  erect  herbs,  with  alternate  odd-pinnately  compound  leaves, 
and  slender,  spike-like  racemes,  with  yellow  flowers:  leaves  wiib  small 
segments  intersposed,  and  large  dentate  stipules:  calyx-tube  contracted  at 
the  throat  with  a  5-eleft  limb,  and  bristly  on  upper  part:  petals  5:  stamens 
slender,  5-15,  carpels  2,  styles  terminal:  fruit  dry,  included  in  the  prickly 
calyx-tube. 

A.  Eupatdria,  Linn.     Spicate  raceme  terminating  the  stem  (G  in.  to  2 
ft.    higli):  petals    yellow   and    twice   longer    than    the 
calyx.    Dryish  soils.    Summer. 

4.  FRA6ARIA.     Strawberry.  ^-^--^'S 

Low  perennials  with   3  broad-toothed  leaflets  and        ^^^^^Sm 
a  few  flowers  on  radical  peduncles:  torus  enlarging  in    -, 
fruit,  usually  becoming  fleshy. 

F.  v6sca,  Linn.  Fig.  474.  Small,  very  sparsely 
hairy,  the  leaves  thin  and  rather  light  green,  very 
sharply  toothed:  flower-clusters  overtopping  the  foli- 
age, small  and  erect,  forking:  fruit  slender  and  pointed,     474.    Fragaria  vesca. 


356 


THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 


^5 


476.  Prunns  Persica. 


light  colored  (.sometimes  white),  the  akenes 
not  sunk  in  the  flesh.  Cool  woods;  common 
North. 

r.  Virgini^na,  Duch.  Common  field  straw- 
berry. Fig.  475.  Stronger,  darker  green,  loose- 
hairy,  the  leaves  with  more  sunken  veins  and 
larger  and  firmer:  flower-cluster  slender  but  not 
overtopping  the  leaves,  in  fruit  with  drooping 
pedicels:  fruit  globular  or  broad-conical,  with 
akenes  sunk  in  the  flesh,  light  colored.  Very 
475.    Fragaiia  Virginiana.         common. 

F.  CMlo^nsis,  Duch.  Garden  strawberry.  Fig.  204.  Low  and  spread- 
ing but  stout,  the  thick  leaves  somewhat  glossy  above  and  bluish  white 
beneath,  rather  blunt-toothed:  flower-clusters  short,  forking,  the  pedicels 
strong  and  long:  fruit  large  and  firm,  dark  colored,  with  sunken  akenes. 
Chile. 
5.  PEtNTTS.     Peach.    Plum.     Cherry. 

Trees  and  shrubs,  mostly  flowering  in  early 
spring:  sepals,  petals  and  stamens  borne  on  the  rim 
of  a  saucer-shaped  torus,  the  calyx  with  5  green 
spreading  lobes  and  the  petals  5  and  obovate:  pis- 
til 1,  sitting  in  the  bottom  of  the  flower,  the  ovary  ripen- 
ing into  a  drupe:  leaves  alternate. 

a.  Peach  and  apricot :  flowers  solitary  from  lateral  win- 
ter buds,  visually  appearing  before  the  leaves. 
P.  P6rBica,  Sieb.  &  Zucc.  Peach.  Fig.  476.  Small 
tree,  with  oblong-lanceolate  pointed  serrate  leaves  and  sol- 
itary fuzzy  fruits  on  last  year's  wood.  China.  The  nec- 
tarine is  a  smooth-fruited  form. 

P.  Armeniaca,  Linn.  Apricot.  Fig.  477.  Leaves  ovate 
to  round-ovate,  serrate:  fruits  solitary,  on  last  year's  shoots  or  on  spurs, 
smooth  or  nearly  so.     China. 

aa.  Plums:   flowers  in  umbel-like  clusters:  fruit  large  and  smooth,  usually 

with  a  distinct  suture  (or  "crease")  on  one  side  and  covered  tcith  a 

"bloom,"  the  stalk  short. 

P.  dom^stica,  Linn.    Common  plum.    Figs.  194,  262.    Small  tree,  usually 

with  young  shoots  downy:  leaves  thick  and  relatively  large,  dull  dark  green, 

ovate,  oval  or  obovate,  very  rugose  or  veiny,  somewhat  pubescent  beneath, 

coarsely  and  unevenly  serrate:  flowers  large:  fruits  various,  usually  thick- 

meated  and  with  heavy  "bloom."    Europe,  Asia. 

P.  Americana,  Marsh.  Wild  plum  of  the  North.  Fig.  478.  Twiggy 
small  tree,  often  tiiorny,  the  young  shoots  usually  not  downy:  leaves  obo- 
vate, dull  green,  abruptly  pointed,  coarsely  toothed  or  jagged,  not  pubescent 
beneath:  fruit  small,  red  or  yellow,  tough-skinned  and  glaucous,  the  pit 
large  and  flattened.    Common  in  thickets:  improved  forms  are  in  cultivation. 


I 


ROSACEA 


357 


478.     Prunus  Americana.  47y.     Prunus  angustifolia. 

F.  angiiBtildlia,  Marsh.  Chickasaw  plum.  Mountain  cherry.  Fig.  479. 
Smaller,  the  young  growths  smooth  and  zigzag  and  usually  reddish:  leaves 
lanceolate  to  oblong-lanceolate,  often  trough-shaped,  shining,  finely  serrate, 
cherry-like:  fruit  a  small  thin-fleshed  shining  plum  on 
a  long  pedicel.     Delaware,  south  ;  also  in  cultivation. 


Cherries :  fla-ers  in  umbel-like  clusters :  fruit 
small  and  nearly  globular,  early -ripening,  usu- 
ally without  a  prominent  suture  and  '^bloom,"  the 
stalk  slender. 
'  P.  C6ra8U8,  Linn.  Sour  cherry.  Round-headed 
tree,  with  flowers  in  small  clusters  from  lateral  buds: 
480.  Prunus  Avium  leaves  hard  and  stifiBsh,  short-ovate  or  obovate,  gray- 
ish green,  serrate:  fruit  small,  sour.  Europe. 
P.  Avium,  Linn.  Siceet  cherry.  Fig.  480.  Straight  grower,  the  "leader" 
prominent  in  young  trees,  with  flowers  in  dense  clusters  from  lateral  spurs: 
leaves  oblong-ovate,  dull  and  soft,  on  the  voung  growths  hanging  :  fruit 
usually  rather  large,  sweet.     Europe. 

aaaa.    Wild  cherries,  with  small,  scarcely  edible  fruits: 
flowers  umbellate  or  racemed. 

P.  Pennsylvdnicum,  Linn.  Wild  red  cherry.  Pin  or  bird  cherry.  Small 
tree,  20-30  ft.  high,  with  red-brown,  peeling  bark:  flowers  small,  white,  on 
long  pedicels  in  umbel-like  clusters,  from  lateral  scaly  buds,  in  early  spring, 
before  or  with  the  leaves:  fruit  very  small,  globose,  red,  smooth,  with  thin, 
sour  flesh. 

P.  Virginiana,  Linn.  Choke  cherry.  Small  tree  or  shrub,  5-20  ft.,  with 
grayish  spotted  bark:  leaves  thin,  oval  or  obovate,  abruptly  acute  at  tip, 
sharp-serrate:  flowers  white,  in  short  racemes,  terminating  leafy  branches, 
appearing  after  leaves  in  late  spring:  fruit  small,  globose,  red  changing  to 
dark  crimson  (nearly  black),  very  astringent:  usually  found  along  banks 
and  in  thickets. 

P.  serdtina,  Ehrh.  Wild  black  cherry.  Tree  50-80  ft.,  with  black,  rough 
bark  and  reddish  brown  branches;  leaves  thickish,  oblong  or  oblong-lanceo- 


358  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

late,  acute  or  tapering  at  tip,  serrate  with  incurving  or  bluntish  teetb :  flow- 
ers later  than  preceding,  white,  in  elongated,  drooping  or  spreading,  termi- 
nal racemes:  fruit  deep  purple  or  black  {%  in.  in  diameter)  with  a  sweetish, 
bitter  taste. 

6.  RtBUS.    Bramble, 

Shrubs,  usually  thorny,  the  canes  or  shoots  dying  after  fruiting,  with 
alternate  digitately  compound  leaves  :  flowers  white,  in  clusters,  with 
5-parted  calyx  and  5  petals:  ovaries  many,  ripening  into  coherent  drupelets. 

a.  Ifaxpherrii's:  drupelets  or  berry  separating  from  the  torus. 

R.  occident^lis,  Linn.  Black  raspberry.  Figs.  128,  263.  Canes  long 
and  thorny,  glaucous,  rooting  at  the  tips  late  in  the  season:  leaves  of  mostly 
3  ovate  doubly-toothed  leaflets:  flowers  in  close,  umbel-like  clusters:  fruits, 
firm,  black  (sometimes  amber-color).     Woods,  and  common  in  cultivation. 

R.  Btrigdsus,  Miehx.  Med  raspberry.  Canes  erect  and  weak-prickly, 
more  or  less  glaucous,  not  rooting  at  tips,  leaflets  oblong-ovate:  flowers  in 
racemes:  fruits  soft,  red.     Woods,  and  cultivated. 

R.  odoratus,  LiTin.  Flowering  raspberry .  Flotveriyuj  " mulberry ." 
Shrubby  and  erect,  branching,  3-5  ft.,  not  prickly,  but  rather  bristly  and 
sticky-hairy:  leaves  large,  3-5-lobed:  flowers  large,  1-2  in.  broad,  in  terminal 
corymbs,  the  petals  orbicular  and  purplish  rose  (rarely  whitish):  fruit  red, 
ripe  in  August,  flattened,  sweetish  but  scarcely  edible.    Common  in  woods 

aa.  Blackberries:  drupelets  adhering  to  the  torus  (the  torus  forming  the 
"core"  of  the  berry. 

R.  nigrobdccus,  Bailey  (R.  villosus  of  some).  Common  blackberry. 
Tall,  very  thorny:  leaflets  3  or  5,  ovate  and  pointed,  toothed,  hairy  beneath: 
flowers  large,  in  open  racemes:  fruit  thimble-shaped  and  firm,  black  when 
ripe.     Woods,  and  cultivated. 

R.  villdsus,  Ait.  {B.  Canadensis  of  some).  Northern  dewberry.  Trail- 
ing and  rooting  at  tips,  prickly:  leaflets  3-7,  ovate-acuminate  or  oblong-ovate, 
toothed:  flowers  1-3,  on  erect,  short  peduncles,  large:  fruit  like  a  small  and 
shining  blackberry.     Sterile  fields,  and  in  cultivation. 

R.  triviilis,  Michx.  Southern  dewberry.  Fig.  158.  Long-trailing, 
very  thorny  and  bristly:  leaves  3-5,  more  or  less  evergreen,  mostly  lance- 
oblong  and  small,  strong-toothed:  flowers  1-3:  fruit  black.  Sands,  Vir- 
ginia, south;  also  in  cultivation. 

7.  E^RRIA.    Globe  Flower.    ".Iapan  Rose." 

ShruVjby  plants  with  calyx  of  5  acuminate,  nearly  distinct  sepals:  petals 
5  (or  flowers  double):  ovaries  5-8,  smooth,  globose:  leaves  simple,  ovate, 
acuminate,  doubly  serrate,  with  stipules:  flowers  terminal  on  branches,  soli- 
tary or  a  few  together. 

K.  Japdnica,  DC.  Bush  3-8  ft.  with  green  winter  twigs:  flowers  orange- 
yellow,  usually  double:  leaves  sometimes  variegated.  Late  May  and  June. 
Cultivated. 


ROSACEA  359 

8.  BOSA.  Rose. 

More  or  less  thorny  erect  or  climbing  shrubs  with  pinnate  wing-petioled 
leaves,  and  flowers  with  5  calj'x-lobes  and  5  large,  rounded  petals:  pistils 
many,  becoming  more  or  less  hairy  akenes  which  are  enclosed  in  a  hollow 
torus  (fruit  becoming  a  hip,  Fig.  265).  Most  of  the  garden  roses  are  too 
difficult  for  the  beginner:  they  are  much  modified  by  the  plant-breeder. 

R,  Carolina,  Linn.  Swamp  rose.  Tall,  often  as  high  as  a  man,  the  few 
spines  usually  somewhat  hooked:  stipules  (petiole  wings)  long  and  narrow: 
leaflets  5-9,  narrow-oblong  and  acute,  finely  serrate:  flowers  rather  large, 
rose-color.    Swamps. 

R.  lilcida,  Ehrh.  Usually  low,  with  stout  hooked  spines:  stipules  rather 
broad:  leaflets  about  7,  smooth  and  mostly  shining  above:  flowers  large, 
rose-color.    Moist  places. 

R.  hiiinilis.  Marsh.  Three  feet  or  less  tall,  with  straight,  slender  spines: 
stipules  narrow:  foliage  usually  less  shining.    Dry  soils. 

R.  rubigindsa,  Linn.  Sweet  briar.  Eglantine.  Erect,  4-8  ft.,  curving, 
armed  with  stout  recurved  prickles,  with  weaker  ones  intei'mixed:  leaflets 
5-9,  ovate  or  oval,  coarsely  and  doubly  serrate  and  resinous  or  glandular, 
pubescent  beneath,  very  aromatic:  flowers  small,  pink  or  white,  solitary, 
single  or  double.    Naturalized  from  Europe  and  in  cultivation. 

9.  AMELANCHIER.   Service  Berry.  June  Berry. 

Small  tress  or  shrubs,  with  smooth,  grayish  bark:  leaves  simple,  peti- 
oled,  serrate:  flowers  white,  in  racemes,  or  rarely  solitary:  calyx-tube  5- 
cleft:  petals  5:  stamens  many,  short,  inserted  on  calyx-throat:  ovaiy 
inferior,  apparently  10-celled,  with  1  ovule  in  each  cavity:  styles  5,  united 
below:  fruit  a  l)erry-like  pome,  4-10-celled. 

A.  Canadensis,  Torr.  &  Gray.  Shadbtish.  Small  tree  or  bush  5-50  ft. 
high,  with  showy  white  flowers  in  very  early  spring  before  the  foliage: 
leaves  ovate  to  oblong,  sharply  serrate,  acute  at  apex,  base  cordate,  soon 
smooth:  stipules  long  and  silky-hairy:  fruit  red  or  purple  pomes,  on  slender 
pedicels,  sweet  and  edible.    Woods,  common. 

10.  PtRUS.    Pear.    Apple. 

Small  trees  or  shrubs  with  alternate  leaves,  and  flowers  in  clusters  in 
spring:  flowers  5-merous:  ovaries  usually  5,  immersed  in  the  torus,  the 
styles  free. 

a.  Leaves  simple:  pear  and  apple. 

P.  commilnis,  Linn.  Pear.  Figs.  63,  101,  102,  182,  266.  Leaves  ovate, 
firm  and  shining,  smooth,  close-toothed:  fruit  tapering  to  the  pedicel. 
Europe. 

P.  M&IuB,  Linn.  Apple.  Figs.  (!7,  267,  268.  Leaves  ovate,  soft,  hairy 
beneath,  serrate:  fruit  hollowed  at  the  base  when  ripe.    Europe. 

P.  coron&ria,  Linn.  Wild  crab.  Bushy  tree  to  t.bout  20  ft.,  somewhat 
thorny:  leaves  ovate-triangular  to  heart-shaped,  cut-serrate,  or  somewhat 
lobed,  soon  sraoothish:  flowers  large,  strikingly  fragrant,  rose-colored,  few 


360  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

in  a  corymb  or  cluster:  pome  flattened  at  the  ends,  long-stemmed,  indented 
at  the  attachment  to  stalk,  green,  becoming  yellowish,  fragrant  but  sour. 
Open  glades,  from  New  York,  West  and  South. 

P.  Io6nsi8,  Bailey.  Prairie  crab.  Pubescent:  leaves  oblong  or  ovate, 
notched  or  parted  along  the  sides,  the  petioles  short:  pome  globular  or 
oblong,  short-stemmed,  with  light  dots.    Mostly  west  of  Great  Lakes. 

aa.  Leaves  compound;  mountain-ashes.   (Sorbus.) 

P.  Americana,  DC.  American  mountain  ash.  Treeor  large  shrub,  native 
to  mountain  woods  in  the  east,  but  sometimes  cultivated:  leaves  odd-pin- 
nately  compound,  with  1,3-15  leaflets  that  are  lanceolate,  taper-pointed,  ser- 
rate, bright-green  above:  flowers  numerous,  small,  white,  in  compound,  flat 
cymes:  style  3-5:  berry-like  pomes  globose,  bright  red,  or  orange,  about  the 
size  of  peas. 

P.  Aucupd,ria.  Gaertn.  English  mountain-ash.  Ifowan.  Leaves  pubes- 
cent on  both  sides  when  young,  the  leaflets  blunt:  fruit  larger  than  that  of 
preceding,  about  %  in.  in  diameter. 

11.  CYDONIA.    Quince. 

Small  trees  or  shrubs:  flowers  and  leaves  much  as  in  Pyrus:  ovary  flve- 
celled,  with  many  seeds  in  each:  fruit  a  pome,  usually  hollowed  at  top  end, 
globose,  or  pyriform. 

C.  vulgaria,  Pers.  Quince.  Six  to  15  ft.  high,  with  crooked  branches; 
flower  solitary,  large,  pale  pink  or  roseate,  on  shoots  of  the  season:  leaves 
oblong-ovate,  acute  at  apex,  with  obtuse  base,  entire. 

C.  Jap6iiica,  Pers.  Japan  Quince.  Shrub  3  to  6  ft.,  cultivated  for 
hedges  and  flowers:  branches  armed  with  short,  straight  spines:  leaves 
glabrous  and  shining,  acute  at  each  end,  serrulate,  the  stipules  conspicuously 
reniforra:  flowers  in  axillary  clusters,  nearly  sessile,  crimson  or  scarlet. 
Fruit  globose,  fragrant. 

12.  CRATiEGUS.     Hawthorn.     Figs.  152  to  155. 

Large  bushes  or  small  trees,  much  branched,  the  wood  tough  and  hard, 
usually  very  thorny:  flowers  white  or  pink,  in  dense  umbel-like  clusters: 
petals  5,  entire:  stamens  5-10-many:  fruit  a  small  red  or  yellow  drupe  con- 
taining large  bony  stones:  leaves  simple,  mostly  toothed  or  lobed.  Many 
species  wild  in  North  America,  and  some  cultivated,  too  difficult  of  determi- 
nation for  the  beginner. 

13.  SPIRilA.    Fig.  179. 

Hardy  perennial  herbs  and  many  ornamental  shrubs:  leaves  alternate: 
flowers  white  or  roseate,  usually  small  but  many:  calyx  5-cleft,  short  and 
open:  petals  5:  stamens  many:  fruit  of  about,  5  follicles,  not  inflated. 
Following  are  small  shrubs: 

S.  salicifdlia,  Linn.  Meadow-sweet.  Glabrous  or  nearly  so,  erect  to  3 
or  4  feet,  stem  often  purplish:  leaves  simple,  oblong-ovate  to  lanceolate, 
serrate,  with  stipules  deciduous:  flowers  in  terminal  erect  panicles,  white 


SAXIFRAGACE^  361 

or  pinkish-tinged,  small,  with  pods  (follicles)  5,  smooth,  many-seeded. 
Moist  or  swampy  ground.    Summer. 

S  tomentdsa,  Linn.  Hardliack.  Erect,  2  to  4  ft.  high,  with  pubescent 
stems,  rusty  or  hairy:  leaves  simple,  oblong  or  ovate,  serrate,  woolly  on 
lower  surface,  without  stipules:  flowers  in  terminal  thyrse-like  dense 
panicles,  pink  or  purple  (rarely  white),  the  follicles  5,  pubescent  or  woolly: 
pastures  and  low  grounds.    Late  summer. 

S.  trilobata,  Linn.  Bridal  irreath.  Large  bush  with  long  recurving 
branches  and  bearing  a  profusion  of  showy  flowers  in  flat-toi)ped  clusters: 
leaves  round  ovate,  crenately  cut  and  3-lobed.  S.  Van  Houttei  is  an 
improved  form. 

S.  hypericifdlia,  St.  Peter's  wreath.  From  3  to  6  ft.,  leaves  obovate- 
oblong  or  wedge-shaped,  obscurely  toothed  or  lobed :  flowers  white,  in  many 
small  lateral  sessile  clusters,  on  short  branches.    Cultivated. 

S.  Thunb^rgii,  Sieb.  Compact  bush  with  very  narrow  leaves,  sharply 
serrate  and  very  light  green:  flowers  umbellate,  small,  white.  Handsome 
species  from  Japan. 


XXX.    SAXIFRAGACE^.     Saxifrage  Family. 

Herbs  or  shrubs  of  various  habit,  with  opposite  or  alternate 
leaves  that  usually  do  not  have  stipules:  flowers  with  ovary  mostly 
inferior,  5-merous,  the  stamens  usually  10  or  less  (in  a  few  cases 
as  many  as  40):  pistils  10  or  less,  either  separate  or  the  carpels 
united,  the  fruit  a  follicle,  capsule,  or  berry.  A  polymorphous  family 
comprising  some  600  species  in  about  75  fjenera.  Comprises  saxifrage, 
mitre-wort,  hydrangea,  mock  orange,  curi*ant  and  gooseberry. 

A.  Herbs. 

B.  Stamens  twice  as  many  as  petals. 
C.  Petals  entire:   stamens  usually  10. 

D.  Flowers  in  cymes  or  panicles  (rarely  solitary) : 

capsule  2-beaked :  ovary  usually  2-celled. . .  1 .   Saxifraga 
DD.   Plowf^rs   in    racemes:    ovary  1-celled:    capsule 

2-beaked,  with  1  beak  the  longer  and  larger  2.    Tiarella 

cc.  Petals  with  edges  fringed  or  cleft .'5.  Mitella 

BB.  Stamens  (fertile)  5,  or  equal  in  number  to  the  petals: 

clusters  of  sterile  stamens  opposite  each  petal  ...  4.  Parnassia 
AA.   Shrubs. 

B.  Jjeaves  opposite, 
c.  Stamens  8  or  10. 

D.   Flowers  all  alike :  sepals  5 5.  Deutzia 

DD.  Flowers  usually  of  2  kinds:  the  marginal  ones 

enlarged  and  neutral,  apetalous C.  ITijdrangen. 

CO.   Stamens  many:   petals,  4  or  6,  large,  white 7.   Philadelphus 

BB.  Leaves  alternate b.  Hibes 


362  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

1.  SAXtFBAGA.   Saxifrage. 

Herbs,  with  root-leaves  in  rosette:  flowers  perfect,  small,  whitish,  in 
cjmes  or  panicles,  on  leafy  stems  or  leafless  scapes:  sepals  5,  more  or  le«s 
united:  petals  5,  entire,  inserted  on  calyx-tube:  stamens  mostly  10:  styles 
2  and  capsule  2-beaked,  or  of  nearly  separate  divergent  pods. 

S.  Virgini^nsis.  Michx.  Little  perennial  herb  with  spatulate  or  obovate, 
petioled,  crenate,  thick  leaves:  scape  3-12  inches,  erect,  viscid-pubescent, 
bearing  many  small,  white  flowers  in  a  loose  cyme,  the  petals  exceeding  the 
calyx.    In  early  spring,  on  moist  banks  and  rocks. 

2.  TIABtLLA.    False  Mitrewort. 

Perennials,  with  small  white  flowers  in  racemes:  calyx  white,  campan- 
ulate,  5-lobed:  petals  5,  entire  on  claws:  stamens  10,  with  long  filaments 
from  the  calyx-tube:  ovary  1-celIed,  nearly  superior:  styles  2,  long  and 
slender:  capsule  with  two  very  unequal  beaks. 

T.  cordifdlia,  Linn.  Scape  slender,  pubescent,  leafless  or  with  1  or  2 
leaves:  stoloniferous  from  rootstocks:  leaves  cordate,  lobed  or  toothed, 
petioled,  slightly  hairy  or  downy  beneath:  flowers  white,  in  short  raceme. 
Spring.     Handsome. 

3.  MITELLA.     Mitrewort.    Bishop's  Cap. 

Delicate  little  perennials,  with  small,  white  flowers  in  a  raceme  or  spike, 
the  basal  leaves  heart-shape  or  reniform:  scape  with  two  opposite  leaves,  or 
one  or  none:  calyx  short,  5-cleft,  adherent  to  base  of  ovary:  petals  5,  white 
edges  daintily  fringed,  inserted  on  calyx:  stamens  5  or  10,  with  short 
filaments,  on  petals:  styles  2,  short. 

M  diphylla,  Linn.  About  one  foot  tall:  root  leaves  in  a  cluster,  cordate, 
ovate,  somewhat  3-5-lobed,  toothed,  hairy:  scape  rather  hairy,  with  two 
opposite  nearly  sessile  leaves  near  middle:  flowers  tiny,  many,  white.  May 
to  early  June,  in  rich  woods. 

M.  nuda,  Linn.  Very  delicate  and  slender:  scape  usually  leafless:  basal 
leaves  reniform,  crenate:  flowers  few,  greenish,  very  sniall,  pedicelled;  not 
common.    Damp,  cold  woods,  northward.    Late  spring  and  early  summer. 

4.  PARNASSIA.    Grass  op  Parnassus. 

Low,  glabrous  perennials,  belonging  mostly  to  marshy  or  wet  situations: 
root  leaves  in  rosettes,  rounded,  entire:  stem  leaves  1  or  few,  alternate: 
flowers  solitary,  terminal,  on  a  scape-like  stem,  white  or  greenish:  calyx 
5-'obed  to  near  base:  fertile  stamens  5,  alternating  with  the  five  whitish 
petals,  a  cluster  of  sterile  filaments  at  base  of  each  petal:  ovary  superior 
l-celled,  with  four  parietal  placentae,  and  usually  four  stigmas. 

P.  Caroliniana,  Michx.    One  flower  with  sessile  petals,  white,  with  green- 
ish veins,  1-1^  inches  broad:  root-leaf  thickish,  ovate  or  cordate,  one  leaf 
usually  near  liase  of  scape:  6-15  inches  high.    Wet  places.    Summer. 
.5.  DEtTZIA. 

Shrubs,  having  opposite,  simple,  exstipulate  leaves:  flowers  pauicled  or 
racemed,  numerous,  white  or  pinkish:  calyx  lobes  5:  petals  5  to  many:  sta- 


SAXIFRAGACE^  363 

mens  10,  five  long  and  five  short,  the  filaments  flat,  commonly  with  three 
prongs,  the  middle  prong  antlieriferous:  ovary  inferior,  styles  3-5. 

D.  grdcilis.  Sieb  &  Zucc.  Grows  to  2  or  3  ft. :  flowers  many,  white,  single 
or  double:  leaves  oblong-lanceolate,  sharply  serrate,  green  and  smooth. 
June.    Cultivated  from  Japan. 

D.  scabra,  Thunb.  Tall,  pubescent:  leaves  ovate  or  oblong-ovate,  finely 
crenate  or  serrate:  flowers  pinkish.  Later  blooming  than  preceding,  and 
much  larger.    China  and  Japan. 

G.  HYDRANGEA. 

Shrubs,  with  opposite,  stalked  exstipulate  leaves,  and  flowers  of  two 
kinds  in  terminal  corymbs  or  cymes,  the  outer  ones  usually  sterile,  often 
apetaious,  consisting  merely  of  a  showy,  flat  or  spreading  5-lobed  calyx,  the 
fertile  flowers  small,  with  calyx-tube  4-5  toothed:  petals  4  or  5:  stamens 
8  to  10,  filaments  slender:  ovary  inferior,  2-eelled  (rarely  3-  or  4-celled): 
styles  2-4. 

H.  arbor6scens,  Linn.  Leaves  ovate,  obtuse  or  cordate  at  base,  acumi- 
nate, serrate,  green  on  both  surfaces,  nearly  or  quite  smooth:  flowers  in 
flat  cymes,  often  all  fertile,  but  sometimes  with  many  large,  white,  sterile 
flowers.    Along  streams.    June  to  July. 

H.  Hortensia,  DC.  Smooth,  with  large,  toothed,  bright  green  oval  leaves, 
and  flowers  nearly  all  neutral,  pink,  blue  or  whitish,  in  great  roundish  clus- 
ters.   China  and  Japah.    Cultivated  in  greenhouses. 

H.  paniculata,  Sieb.  Somewhat  pubescent,  with  oblong-ovate,  long- 
pointed,  dull,  sharp-toothed  leaves,  and  whitish  flowers  in  great  elongated 
panicles.    Japan.    The  common  hydrangea  of  lawns. 

7.  PHILADfiLPHUS.     Mock  Orange  (from  the  flowers).     Syringa. 

Shrubs  with  showy  corymbose  or  paniculate  white  flowers  and  opposite 
simple  leaves:  petals  4  or  5;  stamens  20  or  more:  ovary  3-5-loculed,  becom- 
ing a  capsule. 

P.  coron^rius,  Linn.  Tall  shrub  with  erect  branches  ;  leaves  oblong- 
ovate  and  smooth:  flowers  cream-white,  fragrant,  in  close  clusters,  in  late 
spring.     Europe. 

P.  grrandifldirus,  Willd.  Tall,  with  long  recurving  branches :  leaves 
ovate-pointed  and  somewhat  downy  beneath :  flowers  pure  white,  scentless, 
in  loose  clusters.     Virginia,  south,  and  planted. 

8.  RIBES.     Gooseberry  and  Currant. 

Low  shrubs,  often  prickly,  with  alternate  digitately  lobed  leaves: 
flowers  small:  sepals  5  and  petal-like,  on  the  ovary:  petals  and  stamens  5, 
borne  on  the  calyx:  fruit  a  small  globular  berry. 

a.  Gooseberries:  flowers  1-3:  usually  spines  heloiv  the  leaves. 
R.  oxyacantholdes,  Linn.      Small  bush,  with   long,  graceful   branches 
and  very  short  thorns  or  none:  leaves  thin,  orbicular-ovate,  about  3-lobcd, 
the  edges  thin   and    round-toothed;  flowers    on  very  short    peduncles,  the 


364  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

calyx-lobes  longer  than  the  calyx-tube,  the  ovary  and  berry  smooth,  the 
fruit  reddish  or  green.  Swamps  N.;  probable  parent  of  Houghton  and 
Downing  gooseberries. 

R.  GroBBuliiria,  Linn.     Ettglish  gooseberry.      Stiffer  and   denser  bush, 
■with  firm  and  thickish  more  shining  leaves,  which  have  revolute  margins: 


Amerisanum.        483.  Ribes  aureum. 


ovary  downy  and  the  large  fruit  pubescent  or  bristly.     Europe;  parent  of 
the  large-fruited  gooseberries. 

B.  Cyndsbati,  Linn.  Tall,  open,  prickly  bush,  with  thickish  bluntly 
3-lobed  downy  leaves  and  long  peduncles  bearing  3  or  more  flowers  with 
calyx-lobes  shorter  than  the  tube:  leaves  rounded  and  3-lobed:  fruit  dull 
purple,  either  prickly  or  smooth.     Common  in  dry  places. 

aa.   Currants:  florvers  in  long  racemes:  no  spines. 

B.  rilbruin,  Linn.  Med  and  white  currant.  Fig.  48L  Erect  bush,  with 
broad-cordate  3-5-lobed  leaves  with  roundish  lobes  and  not  strong-smelling: 
racemes  drooping,  the  flowers  greenish  and  nearly  flat  open:  berries  (cur- 
rants) red  or  white.     Europe. 

B.  nigrrum,  Linn.  Black  currant.  Stronger  bush,  with  strong-scented 
leaves  and  larger  oblong  or  bell-shaped  flowers  with  bracts  much  shorter 
than  the  pedicels:  berries  black  and  strong-smelling.     Europe. 

B.  Americinum,  Marsh.  [R.  floridum,  L'Her).  Wild  black  currant. 
Fig.  482.  Straggling  bush,  with  heart-shaped  3-5-lobed  doubly  serrate  some- 
what scented  leaves:  flowers  in  long  racemes,  whitish,  with  bracts  longer 
than  the  pedicels:  fruit  black,  scented.    Woods. 

E.  ailreum,  Rursh.  Golden,  buffalo,  or  flowering  currant.  Fig.  -18:!. 
Large  bush,  with  racemes  of  long-tubular  yellow  very  fragrant  flowers: 
fruit  blackish.    Missouri,  west,  but  common  in  gardens  for  its  flowers. 

XXXI.    ONAGRACE.E.     Evening  Primrose  Family. 

Mostly  herbs:  leaves  various,  alternate  or  opposite,  without 
stipules:  flowers  perfect,  usually  4-parted,  with  calyx-tube  joined  to 
ovary  and  often  prolonged,  the  margin  4-lobed,  lobes  valvate  in  the 


ONAGRACE^  365 

bud,  usually  reflexed  in  flower:  petals  4  1,2  to  9),  on  throat  of  calyx- 
tube:  stamens  as  many  or  twice  as  many  as  petals:  style  one,  slen- 
der, the  stigma  4-lobed  (sometimes  2-lobed):  ovary  2  to  4-celled. 
More  than  300  species  and  40  genera,  of  wide  distribution. 

A.  Calyx-tube  much  prolonged  beyond  the  ovary 

B.  Lobes  generally  reflexed :  fruit  a  dry  capsule,  dehiscent.  1.  (Enothera 
BB.  Lobes  large  and  spreading:  calyx-tube  highly  colored: 

fruit  a  4-celled  berry :  flowers  drooping 2.  Fuchsia 

AA.  Calyx-tube  not  much  prolonged. 

B.  Stamens  8:  petals  4 3.  L'pilobinm 

BB.  Stamens  2:  petals  2 4.   Circteu 

1.  (ENOTHfiRA,  Evening  Primrose. 

Herbs,  stems  usually  erect:  leaves  alternate:  flowers  brightly  colored, 
regular,  axillary  or  in  terminal  spikes:  calyx-tube  prolonged  beyond  ovary, 
the  4  lobes  usually  reflexed,  sometimes  soon  falling:  petals  4:  stamens  8: 
stigma  4-lobed:  capsule  usually  narrow  and  long,  4-celled,  many-seeded. 

(E.  biennis,  Linn.  Common  evening  primrose.  Fig.  249.  Stem  erect  2 
to  5  feet,  hairy  and  leafy:  leaves  lance-oblong,  somewhat  repandly-toothed; 
flowers  pure  yellow,  fragrant,  in  terminal,  leafy  spikes,  not  remaining  open 
in  broad  sunshine:  calyx-tube  2  to  3  times  longer  than  ovary  and  lobes 
reflexed:  petals  obcordate:  pod  oblong  bluntly  4-angled.  A  very  common 
biennial  of  roadside  and  pasture,  opening  quickly  at  nightfall. 

(E.  fruticosa,  Linn.  Sundrops.  Biennial  or  perennial:  stem  erect,  1  to 
3  ft.,  leafy,  more  or  less  hairy:  flowers  yellow,  1  to  2  in.  in  diameter,  in 
corymbed  racemes,  open  in  daytime:  pod  decidedly  4-angled  and  4-ribbed, 
rather  downy,  shortly  stalked.    Dry  soil. 

(E.  pvimila,  Linn.  Resembles  preceding,  but  smaller,  5  to  12  inches  high: 
corolla  yellow,  about  J^in.  across:  pod  smooth,  4-angled,  sessile  or  short 
stalked.    Dry  soil. 

2.  FtrCHSIA.    Figs.  160,  189. 

Herbs  or  shrubby  plants  (some  trees) :  leaves  opposite,  or  3  in  a  whorl: 
flowers  drooping,  axillary:  calyx-tube  colored,  extended  beyond  ovary: 
margin  4-lobed,  spreading:  petals4  on  throat  of  calyx:  stamens  8,  projecting: 
style  long:  fruit  a  4-celled  berry.  A  number  of  species  of  these  ornamental 
plants  in  cultivation.     Mainly  native  to  South  America. 

r.  Magelldnica,  Lam.  Smooth  and  tender:  leaves  simple,  toothed, 
slender-petioled :  flowers  hanging  on  long  peduncles  from  leaf  axils:  calyx 
red,  lobes  long,  exceeding  the  tube  and  the  petals:  petals  blue  or  purple  or 
red,  obovate,  notched,  convolute  about  the  bases  of  the  long  filaments  and 
style.  The  common  window-garden  fuchsias  {F.  speciosa)  have  descended 
from  this  species,  more  or  less  hybridized  with  others. 

3.  EPILOBIUM.   Willow-herb. 

Mostly  perennials,  with  leaves  nearly  sessile,  alternate  or  opposite: 
flowers  white   or  puiple,    spicate,   racemed,    or    solitary:   calyx-tube    little 


366  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

if  any  longer  than  ovary,  limb  4-cleft:  petals  4:  stamens  8:  stigma  4-lobed: 
fruit  linear,  4-sided,  dehiscent  by  4  loculicidal  valves,  many-seeded:  seeds 
■with  tuft  of  lent?,  silky  hair  attached  to  tip. 

E.  angustifdlium,  Linn.  Purple  fireiveed.  Stem  simple,  erect,  4-7  ft.: 
lower  leaves  alternate,  lanceolate,  nearly  entire:  racemes  long,  terminal, 
showy:  flowers  large,  about  1  in.  across,  reddish  purple.  Common  in  woods. 
4.  CIRCSA.    Enchanter's  Nightshade. 

Low,  delicate,  and  insignificant  perennial  herbs,  with  creeping  root- 
stocks:  leaves  opposite,  very  thin,  petioled:  flowers  very  small,  in  terminal 
and  lateral  racemes:  calyx-tube  slightly  prolonged  beyond  ovary:  parts  of 
the  flower  in  twos.    Damp,  shady  places.    Summer. 

C.  Luteti^na,  Linn.  Stem  erect,  1-2  ft.  tall,  pubescent:  leaves  ovate, 
slightly  repand-toothed:  flowers  white  or  pink,  about  ]/g  inch  in  diameter,  on 
slender  pedicels,  bractless:  fruit  small,  round,  2-celled,  bristly.  The  com- 
mon species  in  damp,  shady  places  in  summer. 

XXXn.    UMBELLIFER.^.     Parsley  Family. 

Herbs,  mostly  strong-scented  and  with  compound  alternate 
leaves  with  petioles  expanded  or  sheathing  at  the  base:  flowers 
small,  mostly  perfect,  5-merous,  epigynous,  in  umbels  or  umbel-like 
clusters:  stamens  5:  fruit  consisting  of  two  carpels,  which  are  dry 
and  seed-like  and  indehiscent.  Oil-tubes,  in  the  form  of  stripes,  one 
or  several  in  the  intervals  of  the  ribs  on  the  fruits,  also  sometimes 
under  the  ribs  and  on  both  faces  of  the  fruit,  are  characteristic  features 
of  the  Umbelliferte.  A  well-marked  natural  family  of  about  1,500 
species  in  about  160  genera.  Some  of  the  species  are  poisonous. 
Here  belong  parsley,  parsnip,  carrot,  celery,  caraway,  sweet  cicely. 
Rather  difficult  for  the  beginner. 

A.   Fruits  bristly 1.  Daucns 

AA.  Fruits  not  bristly. 
B.  The  fruits  winged. 

c.   Wing    single,    surrounding    the    margin:    flowers 

yellow 2.  Pastinaca 

CO.  Wing  double  on  margin :  flowers  while 3.  Angelica 

BB.  The  fruits  wingless. 

c.  Fruit  long  and  slender,  tapering  at  base:  no  appar- 
ent oil-tubes:  flowers  white 4.  Osmorrhiza 

OC.  Fruit  ovate  or  orbicular. 

D.  Plant  low  and  delicate:  blooms  in  earliest  spring: 

stem  with  1  or  2  leaves,  if  any 5.  Erigenia 

DD.  Plant  tall,  stems  leafy. 

E.  Axis   not   splitting  in  two  when  the  carpels 

fall  from  it 6.  Apium 

EE.  Axis    splitting   in   two    when   the    carpels    or 

"  seeds  "  fall 7.  Carum 


UMBELLIFER^  367 

1.  DAttCUS.    Carrot. 

Annuals  or  biennials,  bristly,  slender  and  branching,  with  small  white 
flowers  in  compound  umbels,  the  rays  of  which  become  inflexed  in  fruit:  the 
fruit  oblong,  ribbed  and  bristly. 

D.  Cardta,  Linn.  Carrot.  Fig.  180.  Leaves  pinnately  decompound,  the 
ultimate  segments  lanceolate:  outer  flowers  with  larger  petals.  Europe; 
cultivated  for  the  root,  and  extensively  run  wild. 

2.  PASTINACA.    Parsnip. 

Tall,  smooth  biennials  of  strict  habit  and  with  pinnately  compound 
leaves:  flowers  yellow,  in  compound  umbels  with  scarcely  any  involucres: 
fruit  oval,  very  thin,  wing-margined. 

P.  satlva,  Linn.  Parsnip.  Flowering  stem  2-A  ft.  tall,  grooved,  bol- 
low:  leaflets  ovate  or  oblong,  sharp-toothed.  Europe;  cultivated  for  its 
roots  and  also  run  wild. 

3.  ANGELICA. 

Strong,  tall,  perennial  weeds,  with  great  compound  leaves  and  large 
umbels  of  small  white  flowers,  with  involucre  and  involucels  none,  or  only  a 
few  small  bracts:  fruit  ovate  or  oval,  flattened,  with  rather  broad,  marginal 
wings:  oil-tubes  many. 

A.  atropurpilrea,  Linn.  A  great  weed,  3-8  ft.  tall,  in  moist,  rich  soil  or 
swampy  ground,  with  stem  stout,  smooth,  strong- scented,  often  purple: 
leaves  large,  3-compound,  on  petioles  with  broad,  inflated  bases:  umbels 
large,  flowers  greenish  white. 

4.  OSMOKRHlZA.   Sweet  Cicely. 

Herbs  1-2  feet  or  more,  perennial,  glabrous  or  pubescent,  from  thick- 
clustered,  aromatic  roots:  leaves  two  or  three  times  pinnately  compound: 
leaflets  variously  toothed,  — the  whole  leaf  fern-like:  flowers  many,  small, 
white,  in  compound,  rayed  umbels:  fruit  linear  to  linear-oblong,  attenuate 
at  base,  short-beaked,  compressed,  with  5  bristly  ribs:  no  oil-tubes. 

0.  brevistylia.  DC.  Stout,  downy,  1-2  or  3  f*^. :  style  conical,  shorter 
than  the  ovary. 

0.  longistylis,  DC.  Glabrous  or  nearly  so,  otherwise  much  like  the  pre- 
ceding: style  slender  and  about  as  long  as  the  ovary:  root  aromatic. 

5.  ERIGfiNIA. 

Little,  glabrous  perennial,  early  flowering:  simple  stem,  springing  from 
a  rounded  tuber:  leaves  finely  compound:  flowers  in  small  clusters,  in 
leafy  bracted  umbels,  small,  white:  calyx-teeth  wanting:  petals  obovate  or 
spafulate:  fruit  nearly  orbicular,  compressed  on  sides,  glabrous,  notched 
at  both  ends. 

£.  bulbdia,  Nutt.  Harbinger  of  spring.  A  delicate  and  pretty  but  incon- 
spicuous plant,  4  to  10  inches  high,  springing  from  the  ground  in  earliest 
spring,  on  sunny  slopes  of  woodlands.  The  little  white  petals  and  brown  or 
purplish  anthers  give  a  "pepper-and-salt"  appearance. 


368  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

6.  APIUM.   Celery. 

Annuals  or  biennials,  with  large  pinnate  leaves:  flowers  white,  in  small 
umbels:  fruit  small,  usually  as  broad  as  long,  each  carpel  5-ribbed:  axis, 
from  which  the  carpels  fall,  not  splitting  in  two. 

A.  gravfiolens,  Linn.  Celery.  Biennial,  smooth:  leaflets  3-7,  wedge- 
shaped  or  obovate,  the  lower  ones  about  3-divided,  round-toothed,  Europe: 
cultivated  for  its  petioles,  which  have  become  greatly  enlarged. 

7.  CAKUM.    Caraway. 

Slender  and  erect,  smooth  annual  and  biennial  herbs  with  pinnate  leaves; 
flowers  white  or  yellowish,  in  compound  umbels  provided  with  involucres: 
axis  bearing  the  carpels,  splitting  in  two  at  maturity. 

C.  Carui,  Linn.  Caraway.  Stem  furrowed,  1-2  ft. :  leaves  cut  into 
thread-like  divisions:  flowers  white.  Europe.  Cultivated  for  its  fruits, 
known  as  "Caraway  seed,"  and  also  run  wild. 

C.  Petroselinum.  Benth.  Parsley.  One  to  3  ft. :  leaflets  ovate  and  3-cleft, 
often  much  cut  or  "curled"  in  the  garden  kinds:  flowers  yellowish.    Europe, 


cc.    GAMOPETAL^. 

XXXin.    LABIATE.     Mint  Family. 

Herbs,  usually  of  aromatic  scent,  with  4-eornered  stems  and 
opposite  usually  simple  leaves:  flowers  typically  2-lipped:  stamens 
4  in  2  pairs,  or  only  2:  ovary  deeply  4-lobed,  forming  4  indehiscent 
nutlets  in  fruit.  A  well-marked  family  of  some  2,700  species,  dis- 
tributed in  about  150  genera,  of  both  temperate  and  tropical  regions. 
To  this  family  belong  the  various  mints,  as  peppermint,  spearmint, 
catnip,  hyssop,  thyme,  pennyroyal,  savory,  rosemary,  sage,  hore- 
hound,  balm,  basil.  Flowers  mostly  in  whorls  in  the  axils  of  leaves 
or  bracts,  sometimes  forming  interrupted  spikes. 

A.  Stamens  2. 

B.  Calyx  nearly  equally  toothed. 

C.  Lobes  5:  throat  hairy 1.  Monarda 

CO.  Lobes  4-5:  throat  naked 2.  Lycopus 

BB.  Calyx  2-lipped. 

C.  Throat  naked  within 3.  Salvia 

CC.  Throat  hairy:  plants  very  pungent-scented 4.  Hedeoma 

AA.  Stamens  4. 

B.  Corolla  scarcely  2-lipped:  lobes  nearly  equal. 

C.  Border    of  corolla  4-lobed:    upper   lobe    broadest 

and  emarginate 5.  Mentha 

00.  Border  of  corolla  4-lobed,  with  a  deep  fissure  be- 
tween the  two  upper  lobes 6.   Teucriiiin 


LABIATE 


369 


BB.  Corolla  strongly  2-lipped. 
c.  Calyx  2-lipped. 

D.  Lips  of  calyx  toothed  :  flowers  in  dense  terminal 

spikes  or  heads 7.  Brunella 

DD.  Lips    of    calyx    entire,    the    upper   humped,  or 
appendaged:    flowers   axillary  in    bracts  or 

leaf  axils,  solitary  or  raceraed 8.   Scutellaria 

cc.  Calyx  nearly  or  quite  regular. 

D.  Upper  pair  of  the  stamens  the  longer 9.  Nepeta 

DD.  Upper  pair  of  the  stamens  the  shorter. 

E.  Stamens  short,  included  in  the  tube  of  the 

corolla 10.  Mnrrubium 

EE.  Stamens   long,  projecting  from  the  corolla- 
tube  11.  Leonurus 

1.  MONARDA.    Horse-mint. 

Rather  stout,  mostly  perennials,  with  flowers  in  close  terminal  heads: 
calyx  tubular,  15-nerved,  hairy  in  the  throat,  the  teeth  nearly  equal:  corolla 
strongly  2-lipped,  the  upper  lip  erect,  the  lower  spreading  and  3-lobed. 

M.  fistuldsa,  Linn.  Two  to  5  ft.,  in  clumps:  leaves  ovate-lai.eeolate: 
flowers  in  a  clover-like  flattish  head:  calyx  slightly  curved:  corolla  about 

1  in.  long,  purple.   Common  in  dry  places. 

M.  didyma,  Linn.  Oswego  tea.  Bee  halm.  Stem  4-angled  and  branch- 
ing: leaves  petioled,  shortly  ovate  to  lanceolate,  those  about  the  terminal 
Lead  tinged  with  red:  not  very  common  wild,  but  cultivated. 

2.  L"?COPUS,  Water  Hoarhound. 

Low  perennials,  with  stolons  or  suckers,  much  like  the  mints  (Mentha) 
and  growing  in  similar  moist  or  shady  places:  not  aromatic:  flowers 
small,  white  clustered  in  leaf  axils:  calyx  bell-shaped,  4-  to  5-toothed: 
corolla  campanulate,  with  4  nearly  equal  lobes:  fertile  stamens  2,  the  other 

2  rudimentary  or  wanting:  flowers   small,  white  or  purplish,  braeted    and 
whorled  in  axillary  clusters. 

L.  Virginicus,  Linn.  Stem  G  in.  to  2  ft.,  obtusely  4-angled,  green  or 
often  purplish:  Stoloniferous:  leaves  oblong  or  ovate-lanceolate,  serrate, 
except  at  base,  short-petioled  or  nearly  sessile.    In  moist  places.    Summer. 

?,.  SALVIA.    Sage. 

Annuals  or  perennials,  mostly  with  large  and  showy  flowers:  calyx  and 
corolla  2-lipped:  upper  lip  of  corolla  large  and  usually  arched,  entire  or 
nearly  so,  the  lower  lip  spreading  and  3-lobed:  stamens  2,  short,  the  anther 
locules  separated  by  a  transverse  bar. 

S.  officinalis,  Linn.  Common  sage.  Erect  low  perennial,  with  gray 
pubescent  foliage:  leaves  oblong-lanceolate,  crenulate,  very  veiny:  flowers 
blue,  in  spiked  whorls.    Europe;  used  for  seasoning. 

S.  splendens,  Sell.  (5.  coccinea  of  gardens).  Scarlet  sage.  Tender 
l>erennial  from  Brazil,  but  much  cultivated  for  its  bright  scarlet  floral 
leaves,  calyx,  and  corolla:  leaves  ovate-pointed. 


370 


THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 


4.  HE  DEO  MA.   Mock  Pennvroval. 

Low,  aromatic-fragrant  lierbs,  with  small  bluish  flowers  in  loose  axillary 
clusters,  often  forming  terminal  racemes  or  spikes:  calyx  tubular  13-nerve(l, 
swollen  on  lower  side,  hairy  in  throat,  2-lipped:  corolla  2-lipped,  upper  lip 
er^et,  flat,  emarginate,  the  lower  spreading  and  3-cleft,  2  perfect  stamens: 
two  shorter  sterile  stamens  sometimes  present. 

H.  pulegioldes,  Pers.  Small  annuals  of  pungent  fragrance  and  taste, 
with  slender  stem  6  to  12  in.  tall,  erect,  branching,  pubescent:  leaves  ovate 
to  oblong,  about  1  in.  long,  few-toothed,  petiolate:  whorls  few-flowered,  the 
corolla  bluisli,  pubescent.    In  dry  fields  and  woods.    Summer. 

5.  MflNTHA.   Mint. 

Low  perennials:  calyx  with  5  similar  teeth:  corolla 
nearly  or  quite  regular,  4-cleft:  stamens  4,  equal:  flowers 
in  heads  or  interrupted  spikes,  purplish  or  white. 

M.  piperita,  Linn.  Peppermint.  Straggling,  1-3  ft. 
tall,  the  plant  dark  colored  (stems  purplish):  leaves  ovate, 
oblong,  or  narrower,  acute,  sharply  serrate:  flowers  light 
purple,  in  thick  spikes  1-3  in.  long.  Europe.  Cultivated 
and  escaped. 

M.  spic^ta,  Linn.  {M.  viridis,  Linn.).  Spearmint. 
Fig  484.  Erect  and  sniootli,  1-2  ft.,  green:  leaves  lanceo- 
late and  sharply  serrate:  flowers  whitish  or  tinted,  in 
long,  interrupted  spikes,  Europe.  Along  roadsides,  and 
cultivated. 
ir^^  M.  Canadensis,  Linn.     Wild  mint.    One  to  2  ft.,  pubes- 

»-f— ^^  cent:    leaves  lanceolate:    flowers  tinted,  in  whorls  in  the 
axils  of  the  leaves.    Low  grounds. 

484.  6.  TEtrCRIUM.    Germander. 

Mentha  spicata.  Perennial  herbs  (or  shrubs)  with  small,  pinkish,  rather 

irregular  flowers,  in  terminal  bracted  spkes  (or  heads)  or  verticillate  in 
the  upper  axils  of  the  stem  leaves:  calyx  5-toothed,  10-nerved:  corolla 
.51obed,  with  4  upper  lobes  oblong,  somewhat  equal,  and  turned  forward,  the 
lowest  lobe  large,  rounded:  stamens  4,  in  2  pairs,  projecting  from  a  deep 
fissure  between  the  two  upper  lobes  of  the  corolla. 

T.  Canad6nse,  Linn.  Erect,  pubescent.  1-3  ft.:  leaves  ovate-lanceo- 
late, irregularly  serrate,  short-petioled :  bracts  under  the  flowers  linear- 
lanceolate,  about  as  l'>ng  as  calyx:  spike  long  and  slender,  the  few  oMd- 
looking  purplish  or  pinkish  flowers  in  crowded  verticels.  Damp  ground. 
Late  summer. 
7.  BRUNI&LLA.    Self-heal. 

Low,  usually  unbranched  perennials  without  aromatic  odor:  calyx  about 
10-nerved,  2-lipped:  corolla  2-lipped,  the  upper  lip  arched  and  entire,  the 
lower  one  3-lobed:  stamens  4,  in  pairs,  ascending  under  the  upper  lip. 

B.  vulgaris.  Linn.    Self-heal.    Three  to  ten  in.  tall,  with  ovate  or  oblong, 


LABIATE  371 

usually  slightly  toothed    leaves:    flowers  small,  violet  (rarely  white),  in  a 
dense,  oblong,  clover-like  head  or  spike.    Common  in  grassy  places. 

8.  SCUTELLARIA.    Skullcap. 

Perennials,  bitter,  not  aromitic:  flowers  solitary  or  in  pairs,  axillary  or 
in  bracted  spike-like  racemes:  calyx  bell-shaped,  two-lipped,  the  lips  closed 
in  fruit,  the  upper  one  appendaged  on  the  back  (at  maturity  the  calyx  splits 
to  the  bottom,  the  upper  lip  usually  falling  off):  corolla-tube  elongated, 
curved  and  ascending,  swollen  above  the  throat,  2-lipped,  the  upper  lip 
arched  and  notched:  stamens  4,  ascending  in  pairs  under  the  upper  lip,  the 
upper  pair  shorter. 

S.  laterifolia,  Linn.  Mad-dog  skullcap.  Smooth,  1-2  ft.  high:  stem 
nearly  or  quite  erect,  much  branched,  slender,  leafy:  leaves  thin,  ovate- 
lanceolate,  pointed,  serrate,  petioled:  flowers  blue  (rarely  white),  small, 
^-i^  in.  long,  in  axillary,  one-sided  racemes  (some  terminal).  Wet,  shaded 
places.  Summer.  Several  related  species  in  bogs  and  along  slow  streams, 
but  most  of  them  will  not  be  likely  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  beginner. 

9.  N^PETA.    Catmint. 

Perennials,  mostly  sweet-scented:  calyx  nearly  equally  5-toothed:  corolla 
2  lipped,  the  upper  lip  erect  and  somewhat  concave,  the  lower  .3-Iobed : 
stamens  4  in  pairs  under  the  upper  lip,  the  outer  pair  the  shorter. 

N.  Cataria,  Linn.  Common  catmint  ov  catnip.  Pig.  197.  Erect,  2-3  ft., 
pubescent:  leaves  cordate-ovate,  crenate,  grayish:  corolla  tinted:  flowers 
ill  interrupted  spikes.    Introduced  from  Europe. 

N.  Glechoma,  Benth.  Ground  ivy.  Gill-over-the-c/round.  A  weed  from 
Europe,  but  familiar  almost  everywhere:  creeping,  with  rounded,  crenately 
margined,  petioled  leaves:  flowers  bluish  purple,  small. 

10.  MARKtBIUM.     Horehound. 

Erect  perennials,  with  white-woolly  aspect:  calyx  nearly  equally  5-10- 
toothed,  the  teeth  very  sharp:  corolla  2-lipped,  the  upper  lip  erect  and 
r.fitched,  the  lower  one  spreading  and  3-lobed:  stamens  4,  included  in  the 
corolla-tube.  There  are  a  numlter  of  Old  World  species,  but  only  the 
following  seems  to  have  run  wild  in  this  country: 

M.  vulg^re,  Linn.  Common  horehound.  Leaves  broad-ovate  and  cre- 
nate: flowers  small,  white,  in  dense  whorls.     Europe,  but  common. 

11.  LEONtRUS.    Motherwort. 

Erect  perennials  with  green  aspect:  calyx  about  equally  5-toothed,  the 
teeth  becoming  spine-like:  corolla  2-lipped,  the  upper  lip  somewhat  arclud 
and  entire,  the  lower  spreading  and  3-lobed:  stamens  4,  ascending  under  the 
upper  lip:  nutlets  3-angled. 

L.  Cardiaca,  Linn.  Common  motherwort.  Tall:  leaves  rounded  and 
lobed:  corolla  purple,  the  upper  lip  bearded:  (li)wers  in  axillary  whorls. 
Introduced  from  Europe.  Coiumon.  Other  introduced  species  may  now  and 
then  be  found. 


372  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 


XXXIV.   YERBENACE/E.     Vervain  Family. 

Herbs,  shrubs  or  trees:  leaves  opposite  or  whorled  (in  our  spe- 
cies), exstipulate:  flowers  monopetalous,  often  irregular,  in  bracted 
cymes  or  panicles:  calyx  free  from  the  ovary,  4-5- cleft:  corolla  some- 
times regular,  but  often  more  or  less  tvvo-llpped:  stamens  4  (rarely 
2),  in  unequal  pairs,  inserted  on  corolla,  alternate  with  lobes:  style 
1:  ovary  mostly  2-  to  4-celled  (not  lobed\  with  style  from  summit: 
fruit  dry  or  drupe-like.  About  1,200  species,  mostly  tropical. 
VERBENA.     Vervain. 

Herbs  with  simple,  opposite,  serrate  or  pinnately-Iobed  leaves:  flowers 
usually  sessile,  bracted,  in  terminal  spikes:  corolla  salver-  or  funnel-form, 
with  border  somewhat  unevenly  5-cleft. 

V.  urtlcaBfolia,  Linn.  Perennial,  common  coarse  weed  in  waste  ground: 
4-6  ft.  tall:  leaves  oval,  coarsely  serrate,  stalked:  flowers  minute,  white,  in 
slender  spikes. 

V.  angustifdlia,  Michx.  A  perennial,  roughish  weed,  with  stems  6  in. 
to  2  ft.,  mostly  simple,  leafy:  leaves  sessile,  narrow-lanceolate,  tapering  to 
sessile  base:  flowers  small,  in  spikes:  corolla  purple:  fruits  overlapping  on 
spike.     Dry  fields. 

V.  stricta.  Vent.  Perennial,  hoary-hairy:  stem  1-3  ft.,  very  leafy: 
leaves  obovate  or  oblong,  serrate  and  nearly  sessile:  spikes  thick  and 
densely  flowered;  flowers  blue-purple,  rather  larger  than  in  other  common 
Vervains,  %-'m.  across,  but  few  open  at  one  time.     Westward. 

V.  hastata,  Linn.  A  common,  rather  pubescent  weed  of  the  waysides: 
stem  2-6  ft.  tall,  branching  with  many  slender  spikes  of  the  small,  bracted, 
blue-purple  flowers,  few  flowers  in  bloom  at  one  time:  leaves  lanceolate, 
acuminate,  petioled. 

V.  Aubl6tia,  Linn.  One  of  the  species  from  which  the  garden  Verbenas 
have  come:  stems  rather  prostrate  and  creeping:  flowers  in  a  corymb  or 
pedancled  spike  and  showy,  of  various  colors  and  considerable  size:  leaves 
on  petioles,  ovate  in  outline,  but  pinnately  cut  or  3-parted.  Wild  from 
Indiana  west. 


XXXV.     SCROPHULARIACE^.     Figwort  Family. 

Herbs  (trees  in  warm  countries),  of  various  habit:  flowers  perfect, 
irregular,  usually  imperfectly  5-merous:  corolla  usually  2-lipped  and 
personate:  stamens  4  in  2  pairs,  inserted  on  the  corolla,  with  some- 
times a  rudiment  of  a  fifth:  ovary  single,  2-loculed,  ripening  into  a 
several-  or  many-seeded  capsule.  About  160  genera  and  2,000  species. 
Representative  plants  are  figwort,  snapdragon,  toad-flax,  foxglove, 
mullein,  pentstemon,  monkey-flower  or  musk-plant. 


SCROPHULARIACE^ 


373 


A.  Corolla  very  shallow  and  nearly  regular 1.    Verbascum 

AA.  Corolla  very  irregular,  often  personate. 

B.  Flowers  with  long  spur 2.  Linaria 

BB.  Flowers   spurless,  but    saccate  or    swollen    at  the 

base 3.  Antirrhinum 

BBB.  Flowers  not  spurred,  saccate,  or  much  swollen. 

c.  Stamens  5,  hut  the  fifth  sterile,  often  a  scale  only. 
D.  Sterile    filament   a  little    scale  on  th.e  upper 
side  of  the  corolla:  flowers  small  and  dull- 
colored  4.  Scrofjhtilaria 

DD.  Sterile  filament  elongated:  corolla  2-lipped 
E.  Filament  shorter    than   the   others:   the  2 
lips  of  the  corolla  but   slightly  open: 

seeds  winged 5.   Chelone 

EE.  Filament  about  the  same  length  as  the 
others:  corolla  lip  open:  seeds  wing- 
less    6.  Penfstemon 

DDD.  Sterile  filament,  not  conspicuous:  corolla  al- 
most  2-parted,    the   middle    lobe    of    the 
lower  lip  keeled,  enclosing  the  4  stamens.  7.  Collinsia 
cc.  Stamens  plainly  4. 

D.  Corolla  2-lipped:  calyx  5-angled  :  flowers  not 

drooping 8.  MimnJus 

DD.  Corolla  slightly  2-Iipped,  irregularly  5-lobed: 

flowers  drooping 9.  Digitalis 

DDD.  Corolla  with  upper  lip  narrow  and  erect,  much 
longer  than  the  lower,  and  keeled :  anther- 
sacs  not  alike:  floral  leaves  colored  like 

petals 10.  Castilleia 

ccc.  Stamens  2  (or  2  others  rudimentary  or  want- 
ing). 

D.  Corolla  2-lipped 11.   Gratiola 

DD.  Corolla  rotate,  lobes  unequal 12.    Veronica 

1.  VERBASCUM.     Mullein. 

Tall  biennials,  with  alternate  decurrent  leaves  :  calyx  and  corolla 
5-parted,  the  latter  shallow  and  nearly  or  quite  rotate:  stamens  5,  some  or 
all  of  the  filaments  woolly. 

V.  ThApsus,  Linn.  Common  mullein.  Figs.  22,  133.  Two  to  5  ft.,  stout 
and  usually  unbranched,  white-woolly:  leaves  oblong  and  acute,  felt-like: 
flowers  yellow,  in  a  very  dense  spike.     Weed  from  Europe. 

V.  Blattiria,  Linn.  Moth  mullein.  Slender  and  branching,  green  and 
nearly  smooth:  leaves  oblong,  serrate,  often  laterally  lobed,  somewhat  clasp- 
ing: flowers  yellow  or  cream-colored,  in  a  loose  raceme.   Weed  from  Europe. 

2.  LINARIA.     Toad-Flax. 

Low  herbs,  of  various  habit:  corolla  personate,  the  throat  nearly  or 
entirely  closed,  spurred  from  the  lower  side:  stamens  4:  capsule  opening 
by  apical  pores. 


374 


THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 


L. vulgaris,  Mill.     Toad-flax.     Bntter-and-eggs.     Figs.  255,  485.     Com- 
mon perennial  weed  (from  Europe),  1-2  ft.,  with  linear  leaves  and  yellow 
flowers  in  racemes. 

L.  Cymbalaria,  Mill.  Kenilworth  ivy.  Fig.  486. 
Trailing  :  leaves  orbicular,  o-7-lobed  :  flowers  solitary 
on  long  peduncles,  lilac-blue.  Europe;  very  common 
in  greenhouses  and  sometimes 
runs  wild. 

L.  Canadensis,  Duinont.  Com- 
mon  annual   or    biennial    in  dry 
or    sandy   soil  :  flowering    stems 
slender  and  erect,  gener- 
Linaria  vulgaris.        ^Uy     gj^^pig     ^nd     few- 
leaved:    also  prostrate  shoots,   more  leafy: 
leaves  narrow,  flat,  entire,   sessile,  opposite 
or  wliorled:  flowers  small,  blue,  in  a  terminal, 
loose,  slender  raceme. 

3.  ANTIRRHINUM.     Snapdragon. 


From    Linaria   differs    chiefly  in   having 


486.     Linar 


no  spur,  but  only  a  swelling  at  the  base  of  the  corolla. 

A.  m^jus,  Linn.  Snapdragon.  Fig.  220.  Erect  biennial  or  perennial: 
leaves  oblong,  smooth,  entire:  flowers  erect  or  ascending,  2  in.  long,  purple 
or  white,  in  a  raceme  with  downy  axis.    Europe. 

4.  SCROPHULARIA.    Fiowort. 

Herbs  perennial,  rank  and  generally  ill-smelling,  with  opposite  leaves, 
and  very  odd-looking  small,  greenish-purple  flowers,  in  simple  or  compound 
loose  terminal  cymes:  calyx  deeply  5-parted:  corolla  irregular,  with  a  globu- 
lar tube,  the  limb  5-lobed,  4  upper  lobes  erect,  but  the  lower  one  hori- 
zontal or  reflexed:  stamens  5,  4  fertile,  in  two  pairs,  the  fifth  sterile  and  a 
mere  rudiment  at  the  top  of  the  corolla-tube. 

S.  noddsa,  Linn.  var.  Marildndica,  Gray.  Smooth,  3-6  ft.,  much  branch- 
ing, in  thickets  and  damp  woods,  blooming  in  late  summer  and  early  fall; 
stems  4-angled:  leaves  ovate,  oblong  or  lanceolate,  coarsely  toothed,  3-9  in. 
long,  on  slender  petioles:  flowers  small,  ilull-colored. 

5.  CHELONE.    Turtlehead.    Snakeheau. 

Smooth,  erect  perennials,  with  opposite,  serrate  and  stalked  leaves: 
flowers  large,  sessile,  white  or  rose-tinged,  of  curious  shape,  in  the  upper 
leaf  axils,  forming  a  terminal  spike:  calyx  5-parted,  segments  acute,  brac- 
ted  at  base:  corolla  irregular,  with  inflated  and  elongated  tube  concave 
underneath,  the  limb  two-lipped,  but  lips  only  slightly  open,  the  upper  lip 
broad,  usually  emarginate,  lower  lip  3-lobed,  bearded  within:  stamens 
5,  the  fifth  sterile  and  smaller,  the  filaments  woolly. 

C.  gUbra,  Linn.  Two  to  four  feet  high,  in  swamps  and  by  brooks  or  in 
^et  places.   Late  summer. 


SCKOPHULARIACE^ 


375 


6.  P£NTST£M0N.   Beard-Tongue. 

Perennial  herbs,  with  opposite  leaves,  the  upper  sessile  or  clasping: 
flowers  showy:  calyx  5-parted:  corolla  irregular,  with  tube  more  or  less 
inflated  and  two-lipped,  the  lower  lip  3-lobed:  stamens  5,  4  in  two  pairs 
each  bearing  an  anther,  the  fifth  filament  conspicuous  but  sterile,  sometimes 
longer  than  the  others  and  bearded:  fruit  a  globose  capsule  with  many  wing- 
less seeds. 

P.  pub6scenB,  Solander.  Stems  hairy,  rather  viscid  above,  1-2  feet: 
leaves  narrow-oblong  to  lanceolate,  minutely  toothed  or  entire;  panicle  open: 
corolla  about  1  in.  long,  two-lipped,  with  a  bearded  palate  in  the  throat,  dull 
bluish  violet  or  purplish.    Dry  situations.    May  to  July. 

7.  COLLtN()IA.   Innocence.    Blue-eyed  Mary 

Pretty  little  annuals  or  biennials,  branching  and  diffuse  with  opposite 
or  verticillate  leaves,  and  irregular  flowers,  blue  and  white,  on  pedicels, 
whorled  or  solitary  in  the  axils  of  the  upper  leaves:  corolla  two-lipped  with 
the  upper  lip  2-cleft,  the  lower  lip  3-cleft,  with  the  middle  lobe  keeled  and 
saccate,  enclosing  the  4  stamens  and  the  style:  a  fifth  stamen  reduced  to  a 
mere  rudiment. 

C.  v6ma,  Nutt.  Stem  8-16  in.,  branching:  leaves  small,  various,  the  lower 
ovate,  the  upper  more  lanceolate  and  clasping,  margins  crenate  or  toothed: 
flowers  on  long  peduncles,  in  whorls  of  4-6:  corolla  K  to  %  in.,  twice 
longer  than  calyx:  3  lower  petals  sky-blue  or  pink,  upper  two  petals,  white. 
An  extremely  attractive  plant  in  woods,  blooming  April  to  June. 

8.  MfMITLUS.    Monkey-flower. 

Small  herbs  with  opposite  leaves,  with  usu- 
ally showy  solitary  flowers  on  axillary  pedun- 
cles: calyx  5-angled  and  5-toothed:  corolla  tubu- 
lar, the  2  lobed  upper  lip  erect  or  spreading: 
stamens  4:  stigma  2-lobed. 

M.  ringens,  Linn.  Wild  monlcey -floiver. 
Erect  perennial,  with  square  stem  and  oblong  or 
lanceolate  clasping  serrate  leaves:  flowers  blue 
or  light  purple,  somewhat  personate.  Wet  places. 

M.  Idteus,  Linn.  Motikey-flower.  Tiger- 
flower.  Fig.  487.  Annual,  with  ovate  serrate 
leaves  :  flowers  large,  yellow,  blotched  with 
brick-red  or  brown.    Western  America,  and  coni- 


Mimulus  luteus. 


monly  cultivated.     To  gardeners  often  known  as  M.  tigridioides.  '■■' 

9.  DIGITALIS.    Foxglove. 

Stem  simple  and  strict:  leaves  alternate:  flowers  with  a  long  expanding 
tube  and  a  very  short  indistinctly  lobed  limb,  the  throat  wholly  open: 
stamens  4. 

D.  purpurea,  Linn.  Common  foxglove.  Usually  biennial,  tall  and  stout 
(2-4  ft.):  leaves  oblong,  nearly  or  quite  entire,  rough  and  downy:    flowers 


376  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

many,  drooping   in  a  Ions,  erect    raceme,  2    in.  long,  white  to  purple  and 
spotted  inside.     Old  garden  plant  from  Europe. 

10.  CASTILLfilA.     Painted-cup. 

Herbs,  at  least  partially  parasitic  on  roots  of  other  plants:  flowers 
sessile  in  leafy,  often  brilliantly  colored  bracts:  calyx  tubular,  2-4-cleft; 
corolla  very  irregular,  tubular,  the  tube  included  in  the  calyx,  the  upper 
lip  very  long,  arched  and  keeled,  enfolding  2  pairs  of  stamens;  lower  lip 
short,  3-lobed.  Late  spring  and  summer.  Four  or  five  species  in  our 
territory. 

C.  cocclnea,  Spreng.  Annual  or  biennial,  8-12  in.,  with  very  striking 
inflorescence,  of  scarlet  or  yellow  3-cleft  bracts  surrounding  the  flowers. 
Damp  meadows  or  thickets,  not  common  but  conspicuous. 

IL  GKATiOLA.    Hedge  Hyssop. 

Low,  mostly  perennial  herbs,  found  in  damp  situations:  leaves  opposite: 
peduncles  axillary,  I-flowered  each:  calj-x  5-parted,  segments  scarcely 
equal:  corolla  2-lipped,  upper  lip  emarginate  or  2-cleft,  lower  3-lobed: 
fertile  stamens  2. 

G.  Virginiina,  Linn.  Stems  branching,  or  creeping  at  base,  more  or 
less  viscid,  4-6  in.  tall:  leaves  oblong  or  lanceolate,  few-toothed,  sessile: 
flowers  with  yellowish  corolla,  Yz-Vt.  in.  long:  sterile  filaments  not  present. 
Wet  places.     All  summer. 

12.  VEBONICA.     Speedwell. 

Ours  herbs  with  leaves  mostly  opposite  or  whorled,  blue  or  white  flowers 
solitary  or  in  racemes  from  the  leaf  axils,  or  terminal:  corolla  wheel-shaped, 
the  border  irregularly  4-lobed:  stamens  2,  inserted  on  corolla  tube,  with 
slender  long  filaments:  ovary  2-celIed,  style  slender:  capsule  flattened, 
notched  at  apex,  2-celled,  few-numerous-seeded. 

V.  Americana,  Schw.  Perennial,  weak  and  decumbent  at  base,  rooting 
at  nodes,  finally  erect:  leaves  opposite  at  base,  mostly  petioled,  thickisb, 
oblong  to  lance-ovate,  serrate  racemes  axillary,  opposite,  2-3  in.  long: 
flowers  small,  pale  blue,  on  slender  pedicels:  capsule  swollen,  many-seeded. 
Common  in  and  about  brooks  and  swampy  ground.     June  through  summer. 

V.  officinalis,  Linn.  Little  pubescent  prostrate  perennial,  6  in.  to  1  ft., 
in  dry  fields  and  woods:  leaves  wedge-oblong,  or  obovate,  short-petioled, 
serrate:  racemes  spike-like,  longer  than  leaves:   flowers  pale  blue.    July. 

V.  peregrina,  Linn.  Annual,  glabrous,  erect  4-9  in.,  branched:  lower 
leaves  thick,  oval,  toothed,  petioled;  others  sessile,  entire:  flowers  very 
small,  whitish,  axillary  and  solitary:  capsule  orbicular,  slightly  notched.  A 
common  weed.    April  to  June. 

V.  serpyllifdlia,  Linn.  Perennial,  creeping;  leaves  small,  rounded, 
almost  entire:  flowering  stems,  smooth,  simple,  ascending  2-6  in.:  flowers 
very  small,  in  terminal  racemes:  corolla  pale  blue  or  whitish  with  purple 
stripes,  exceeding  calyx.  Common  in  lawns  and  grassy  fields.  May  through 
?ummer, 


SOLANACEJE  377 


XXXVI.  SOLANACE^.  Nightshade  Family. 
Herbs  or  shrubs,  with  alternate  often  compound  leaves:  flowers 
perfect  and  regular,  5-merous,  mostly  rotate  or  open-bell-shaped 
in  form  and  plaited  in  the  bud:  stamens  5,  often  connivent  around 
the  single  2-loculed  pistil,  borne  on  the  corolla:  fruit  a  berry  or 
capsule  (the  latter  sometimes  4-Ioculed  by  a  false  partition^  the 
seeds  borne  on  a  central  column.  Some  70  genera  and  1,500  species. 
Common  representatives  are  nighshade,  potato,  tomato,  husk  tomato, 
tobacco,  jimson-weed,  petunia. 

A.  Fruit  a  fleshy  berry. 

B.  Fruiting  calyx  bladdery-inflated  and  wholly  enclosing 
the  fruit:  anthers  not  connected,  opening  length- 
wise  1.  Physalis 

BB.  Fruiting  calyx  not  inflated. 

c.  Stamens  with  anthers  equaling  or  exceeding  the 
filaments. 
D.  Anthers   separate  or  barely  connected,  open- 
ing at  the  top 2.  Solan um 

DD.  Anthers  united,  opening  lengthwise 3.  Lycopersicnm 

cc.  Stamens  withanthersmuchshorterthan  filaments. 4.   Capsicum 
AA.  Fruit  a  capsule. 

B.  Calyx  5-parted  to  near  base 5.  Petunia 

BB.  Calyx  toothed,  not  deep-parted. 

c.  Pod  usually  prickly,  large 6.  Datura 

cc.  Pods  not  prickly,  small 7.  Nicotiana 

1.  PHtSALIS.   Ground  Cherry. 

Herbs,  flowering  through  the  summer:  flowers  solitary,  nodding  on 
axillary  peduncles:  leaves  alternate  or  often  somewhat  paired,  margins 
entire  or  sinuate:  calyx  enlarging  after  flowering,  and  finally  enclosing  the 
pulpy  berry  as  a  much-inflated  papery  sac:  corolla  yellowish  or  white,  often 
with  dark  center,  wheel-shaped,  with  short  tube,  the  border  obscurely  5- 
lobed,  plaited  in  bud. 

P.  Virginid,na,  Mill.  Perennial  by  rootstocks,  viscid:  fruiting  calyx 
pyramidal,  closed,  more  or  less  5-angled  and  indented  at  base:  berry  reddish 
yellow,  edible,  not  filling  the  loosely  inflated  calyx:  corolla  yellow,  nearly 
an  inch  in  diameter,  with  brown  center,  and  edge  5-  to  10-angled:  anthers 
yellow.    Open  places,  in  rich  soil.    Summer. 

P.  pub^scens.  Linn.  Low  annual,  more  or  less  pubescent  and  clammy: 
stem  generally  difl'use  in  branching,  9-18  in.  tall,  often  somewhat  swollen  at 
nodes:  corolla  small,  about  J^  in.  across,  yellow  or  greenish,  with  a  dark, 
spotted  center:  anthers  purple:  the  green  or  yellow  berry  does  not  fill  the 
closed,  5-angled  calyx.    In  low  or  damp  places. 


378 


THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 


2.  SOLANUM.     Nightshade. 

Perennials  or  annuals  :  calyx  and  corolla  5-parted,  the  latter  rotate  : 
stamens  5,  exserted,  the  anthers  separate  and  opening  by  a  pore  in  the  top: 
berry  2-loculed. 

a.  Plants  not  prickly. 

S.  tuberdsum,  Linn.  Potato.  Figs.  42,  p.  35,  219.  Low,  diffuse-gro'^^ing 
perennial,  producing  stem-tubers  on  slender  underground  rootstocks:  /eaves 
pinnate,  the  leaflets  differing  in  size  and  ovate:  flowers  bluish:  berries  globu- 
lar, yellowish  green.     Warm  temperate  elevations  of  tropical  Ameri<3a. 

S.  nigrunii  Linn.  Common  nightshade.  Branchy  annual,  1-2  ft.,  nearly 
smooth:  leaves  ovate,  wavy-margined:  flowers  small,  white:  berries  small, 
black.     Waste  places. 

S.  Dulcamara,  Linn      Bittersweet.     Tall,  loosely  clirabiug:  leaves  cor- 
date-ovate, sometimes  3-lobed,  of  ten  with  2  or  4  small  leaflets  at  the  base: 
flowers  small,  violet-purple:  berries  oval,  red.     Perennial.     Common, 
aa.  Plants  prickly. 

S.  MeWngena,  Linn.  Egfjplant.  Guinea  squash.  Fig.  201.  Stout  annual 
with  large,  ovate,  somewhat  angled  pubescent  leaves:  flower  large,  purplish, 
the  calyx  prickly:  fruit  a  very  large  purple  or  white  berry  (often  weighing 
several  pounds).     India. 

3.  LYCOPfiRSICUM.     Tomato. 

Differs  from  Solanum  chiefly  in  having  the  anthers  united  at  their 
tips  by  a  membrane  and  opening  by  lengthwise  slits. 

L.  escul6ntum,  Mill.  Common  tomato.  Fig.  186. 
Tall,  hairy,  strong-smelling  herb,  with  pinnate  leaves, 
the  leaflets  ovate  and  unequal-sided  and  of  different 
sizes:  flowers  small,  yellow,  in  short  forked  racemes: 
fruit  a  large  red  or  yellow  berry.     South  America. 

"^4.  CAPSICUM.     Red  Pepper. 

Erect,  branchy,  smooth  herbs:  stamens  with  slen- 
der filaments  which  are  much  longer  than  the  separate 
488  Capsicum  aunuum.  anthers,  the  latter  opening  by  lengthwise  slits  :    fruit 
globular,  long  or  irregular,  firm. 
C.  innuum,  Linn.     Common  ted  pepper.     Fig.  488.     Annual  or  biennial, 
with    ovate    entire  leaves:  flowers  white,  with  very  short -toothed  or  trun- 
caie  calyx  :    fruit  very  various    in  the   cultivated   varieties.     Trop.  Amer. 

5.  PETtTNIA.    Petunia. 

Clammy-hairy  diffuse  herbs :  calyx-lobes  leaf- 
like and  much  longer  than  the  tube;  corolla  fun- 
nel-form, showy,  the  stamens  not  projecting : 
fruit  2-loculed,  capsular.     South  America. 

P.  nyctaginillbra.Juss.  White  petunia.  Fig. 
489.  Corolla  white,  very  long-tubed  :  leaves 
oval-oblong,  narrowed  into  a  petiole.  Old 
gardens.  489.  Petunia  njctaginiflora. 


SOLANACE^ — CONVOLVULACE^ 


379 


p.  violJlcea,  Lindl.  Fig.  490.  Weaker  and  more  diffuse:  corolla  purple 
or  rose,  the  tube  short  and  broad:  leaves  ovate  or  oval,  nearly  or  quite 
sessile.     The  garden  petunias  are  mostly  hybrids  of  the  two  species. 

6.  DAT&RA.    Jamestown-weed  or  Jimson-weed. 

Very  strong  bushy  herbs,  with  large,  long-tubu- 
lar, short-lived  flowers  from  the  forks  of  the 
branches:  stigma  2-parted:  fruit  a  globular  usually 
prickly  capsxile,  opening  by  4  valves. 

D.  Stramdnium,    Linn.     Fig.  248.     Annual,  3-5 
ft.,  the  stem  green:  leaves  ovate,  sinuate  or  angled: 
corolla  white.  Tropics;  com- 
mon weed. 

D.  Tdtula,  Linn.     Stem 
and  corolla  purple. 

7.  NICOTIANA. 


Tobacco. 

Tall   herbs,   with    large 

"^'--^'^-^^s^  usually    pubescent    leaves: 


490.  Petunia. 

Very  near  the  original 

P.  violaeea. 


corolla  funnelform  or  salverform,  the  tube  usually 
long:  stigma  not  lobed:  pod  2-4-valved,  not  very 
large,  contained  within  the  persistent  calyx. 

N.  Tabdcum,  Linn.  Tobacco.  Robust  annual,  4-6 
ft.,  with  very  large  ovate  decurrent  entire  leaves  and 
rose-purple  panicled  flowers.     Trop.  Amer. 

N.  al^ta,  Link  &  Otto  (^V.  affinis  of  gardens). 
Fig.  491.  Slender  but  tall  (2-4  ft.)  plant  with  clammy-pubescent  herbage: 
leaves  lanceolate  or  obovate,  entire:  flowers  white,  with  very  slender  tube 
5-6  in.  long,  the  limb  unequal.     Brazil;  common  in  gardens. 


491.  Nieotiaua  alata. 


XXXVII.    CONVOLVULACE^.     Convolvulus  Family. 

Herbs,  mostly  twining,  with  alternate  chiefly  simple  leaves: 
flowers  regular,  5-merous,  the  tubular  or  trumpet-shaped  corolla 
mostly  twisted  in  the  bud,  the  stamens  5  and  borne  on  the  corolla: 
ovary  commonly  1-,  mostly  2-loculed,  with  2  ovules  in  each  locale, 
becoming  a  globular  capsule  in  fruit  (which  is  sometimes  4-loculed  by 
the  insertion  of  a  false  partition).  The  family  contains  between  30  and 
40  genera,  and  nearly  1,000  species.  Common  convolvulaceous  plants 
are  morning-glory,  cypress  vine,  sweet  potato,  bindweed,  dodder. 

A.  Plants  with  normal  foliage. 

B.  Stigma  2-3-lobed,  knobbed:  calyx  not  bracted 1.  Ipomaea 

BB.  Stigmas  2,  thread-form:  calyx  sometimes  enclosed  by  2 

leafy  bracts 2.   Coitroh'i<h<s 

AA.  Plants  leafless,  parasitic 3.  Cuscuta 


380 


THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 


492.    Ipomoea 
Quamoclit. 


1.  IFOM^A.    Morning-glory. 

Mostly  twining,  with  showy  flowers  on  axillary  peduncles : 
corolla  with  a  long  tube  and  a  flaring  limb:  pistil  1,  with  one 
Btyle,  and  the  stigma  2-3-lobed :  fruit  a  capsule,  with  1-seeded 
locules. 

a.  Leaves  compound,  with  thread-like  divisions. 

I.  Qu&moclit,  Linn.  Cypress  vine.  Fig.  492.  Leaves  pin- 
nace: flowers  solitary,  red,  small,  narrow-limbed,  with  pro- 
jecting style  and  stamens.  Tropical  America,  but  run  wild 
South;  also  cultivated.     Annual. 

aa.   Leaves  simple  or  deeply  lobed,  broad. 

I.  Bdna-N6x,  Linn.  White  moonflower. 
Fig.  493.  Tall:  leaves  heart-shaped,  or 
angled  or  lobed:  flowers  1  to  few,  white,  opening  once  at 
night,  with  a  slender  tube  and  a  large  limb  4-6  in.  across. 
Trop.  Amer.    Perennial. 

I.  purpiirea.  Roth.  Morning  glory.  Fig.  217.  Leaves 
broadly  cordate-ovate,  entire:  flowers  2-4,  large  and  fun- 
nel-shaped, 2-3  in.  long,  purple  to  streaked  and  white. 
Trop.  Amer.    Annual. 

I.  heder^cea,  Jacq.  Leaves  heart-shaped,  3-5-lobed: 
flowers  1-3,  rather  smaller  than  those  of  /.  purpurea 
Annual. 

I.  Batatas,  Poir.    Sweet  potato.    Creeping:  leaves  heart-shaped  to  tri- 
angular, ustially  lobed:  flowers   (seldom  seen)  3  or  4,  light  pur- 
ple, funnel-form,  1}4  in.  long.    Tropics;  grown  for  its  large  edible 
root-tubers. 

2.  CONVOLVULUS.    Bindweed. 

Herbs  (or  shrubs)  twining  or  erect:  flowers  large,  on  axillary 
peduncles:  sepals  5:  corolla  funnel  form  or  bell-form,  limb  entire, 
5-angled  or  .Globed:  stamens  inserted  on  corolla-tube,  included: 
style  1:  stigmas  2,  long:  ovary  and  pod  2-celled,  4seeded. 

C.  B^pium,  Linn.  Rutland  beauty,  perennial: 
twining  or  trailing  stem:  leaves  heart-shaped  or 
arrow-shaped,  auricles  often  toothed:  flowers  axil- 
lary and  solitary^on  a  peduncle:  calyx  with  2  large 
bracts  at  base,  enclosing  it:  corolla  morning-glory- 
like, white  or  pink,  3^-2  in.  long,  margin  quite  en- 
tire.   Wild  in  low  grounds.    Summer. 

C.  arv6nsi8,  Linn.    Bindweed.   Perenniai,  nearly 
glabrous,    prostrate    or    climbing  :    leaves    entire, 
arrow-shaped,  with  basal  ears  acute-lobed,  but  vari- 
able: calyx  not  bracted  at  base:  corolla  pink,  nearly  white,  small, 
not  over  1  in.  long.    Europe.    Bad  weed.    May  to  September, 


493.     IpomcBa 
Bona-Nox. 

Trop.  America. 


CONVOLVULACE^ — BORRAGINACE^  381 

3.  CCSCUTA.    Dodder. 

Parasitic  twiners  without  foliage  (leaves  reduced  to  scales):  flowers  in 
clusters,  the  cai.yx  and  corolla  with  4-5  lobes:  fruit  2-loculed,  4-seeded.  (See 
p.  89.) 

C.  Grondvii,  Willd.  (Fig.  494),  is  the  commonest  species,  twining  its 
slender  coral-yellow  stems  over  coarse  herbs  in  swales:  corolla  bell-shaped, 
the  tube  longer  than  the  blunt  and  spreading  lobes. 


XXXVIII.   BORRAGINACE^.     Borage  Family. 

Generally  rough  herbs,  with  round  stems,  leaves  usually  alternate 
and  hairy,  exstipulate:  inflorescence  commonly  one-sided,  in  coiled 
terminal  racemes,  straightening  as  flowers  open:  sepal  1-lobe  5: 
lobes  of  corolla  5,  usually  regular:  stamens  5,  on  corolla-tube:  ovary 
deeply  4-bbed,  with  style  in  center:  stigmas  1  or  2:  fruit  usually  4 
separate  1-seeded  nutlets  at  bottom  of  persistent  calyx.  About  1,500 
species  and  80  genera. 

A.  Ovary    entire,    style    terminal  :    fruit    dry    nutlets 

(2  or  4) 1.  HeJiotropium 

AA.  Ovary  deeply  4-parted,  or  4-divided,  the  style  rising 
from  the  center. 
B.  Corolla  and  stamens  regular. 

c.  Fruits  (nutlets)  bur-like,  priclily  or  spiny. 
D.  Nutlets  oblique,  fixed  by  apex,  or  laterally, 
to    style,    covered    all    over   by    hooked 

prickles 2.   Cynoglossum 

DD.  Nutlets   erect,  fixed  by  base  or  side  to  the 
central  column:  prickles  in  one  or  more 

rows  on  the  surface 3.  Ech  inospernnim 

cc.  Fruits  (nutlets)  not  armed  with  prickles. 

D.  Nutlets  attached  laterally  to  the  receptacle: 

flowers  rather  large 4.  Mertensia 

DD.  Nutlets  attached  by  bases  to  receptacle. 

E.  Flowers  not  bracted,  in  racemes 5.  Myosotis 

EE.   Flowers  bracted,  in  racemes G.  Lithospermum 

BB.   Corolla  irregular:   stamens  unequal 7.  Ecliium 

1.  HELIOTROPIUM.    Heliotrope. 

Perennial  or  annual  herbs  (or  shrubs)  with  white  or  purplish,  small 
flowers  in  1-sided  spikes:  flowers  alternate,  usually  entire:  stamens  short, 
antliers  nearly  sessile:  style  short,  with  conical  stigma:  ovary  4-celled: 
fruit,  4  nutlets  or  two  2-celied  nutlets. 

H.  Peruvianum,  Linn.  Common  garden  heliotrope.  Pubescent  or  rough, 
often  rather  slirubby:  leaves  lance-ovate  to  oblong,  short-petioled,  veiny 
and  wrinkled:  flowers  very  fragrant,  white  to  lilac. 


382  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

2.  CYNOGLCSSUM.    Hound's  Tongue.    Stick-tight. 

Tall,  coarse,  usually  rough  and  unpleasantly  scented  hairy  weeds,  with 
large  entire  alternate  leaves:  flowers  small,  inconspicuous,  in  racemes  or 
forked  cymes,  some  bracted:  corolla  short,  nearly  wheel  form,  with  Scon- 
verging,  blunt  scales  closing  the  throat:  ovary  deeply  4-parted,  with  style 
from  center:  fruit  of  bur-like  nutlets,  covered  with  hooked  prickles. 

C.  oKicin&le.  Linn.  A  coarse,  pubescent,  troublesome  dock-like  weed 
from  Europe,  dull  green,  smelling  like  mice,  grows  to  1  or  2  ft.,  leafy  to 
the  top:  leaves  softlj' pubescent,  lance-oblong,  mostly  sessile:  corolla  dull 
reddish-purple,  not  K  in.  across:  nutlets  margined.    Biennial. 

C.  Virginicum,  Linn.  Stem  stout,  2  to  3  feet  tall,  bristly  hairy,  leafless 
above:  leaves  oblong  oval  with  clasping  bases;  flowers  pale  blue,  bractless, 
on  short  pedicels  in  terminal  short  spikes:  nutlets  not  margined.  Peren- 
nial. 

3.  ECHINOSPfiKMUM.    Stick-seed.     Bur-seed. 

Anniial  or  biennial  weeds  in  dry  soils,  grayish  with  hairs:  leaves  alter- 
nate, narrow,  entire:  flowers  small,  blue  or  white,  in  terminal,  leufy- 
bracted  racemes:  corolla  with  5  scales  in  throat:  nutlets  erect,  bearing  1  to 
3  rows  of  stout  prickles,  and  fixed  by  side  to  the  central  column. 

E.  Virginicum,  Lehm.  A  troublesome  biennial  or  annual  weed  of  thick- 
ets and  open  woods,  2  to  4  ft.,  slender  and  branching:  leaves  thin,  oblong- 
ovate,  tapering  at  both  ends:  flowers  small,  whitish  or  bluish,  on  pedicels, 
in  racemes  1  to  3  in.  long,  reflexing  in  fruit:  nutlets  small,  globose,  covered 
with  barbed  prickles. 

4.  MERTENSIA,  Lungwort. 

Perennial,  usually  glabrous  herbs,  with  leaves,  entire,  pale  green  and 
often  dotted,  the  radical  ones  many-veined  and  the  stem  leaves  sessile: 
flowers  in  tei'minal  racemes:  calyx  short,  5-eleft:  corolla  funnel  form  or 
trumpet-shape,  often  with  5  small  folds  in  throat,  and  stamens  inserted 
between:  style  long  and  slender:  nutlets  erect,  smooth,  finely  wrinkled. 

M.  Virginica,  DC.  Leaves  entire,  obovate,  sessile  on  stem:  flowers  large, 
trumpet-shaped,  1  in.  long,  spreading  or  hanging  on  slender  pedicels,  light 
blue  or  pinkish:  corolla  throat  not  crested,  limb  entire.  Perennial.  Rich 
soil.    May,  June. 

5.  MYOSdTIS.   Forget-me-not. 

Low,  usually  villous  herbs,  with  stems  erect  or  reclining,  branching: 
leaves  small,  alternate,  entire:  flowers  small  in  bractless  racemes:  corolla 
salver-form,  5-lobed,  lobes  spreading,  rounded  with  appendages  at  base: 
nutlets  smooth  or  hard,  fixed  by  base.    Several  species. 

M.  paliistris.  With.  True  forget-me-not.  A  favorite  garden-plant  intro- 
duced from  Europe,  but  also  escaped  to  field  and  moist  spots:  racemes 
1-sided:  leaves  lance-oblong,  obtuse:  calyx  open  in  fruit,  the  lobes  shorter 
than  the  tube:  corolla  light-blue,  with  yellow  center.    Perennial,  native. 


BORRAGINACE^ — HYDROPHYLLACE^  383 

M.  Idxa,  Lehm.  Flowers  smaller,  paler,  on  long  pedicels:  calyx-lobes 
long:  habit  lax.     Swamps. 

M,  arv6n8i8,  Hoflf.  Hairy:  leaves  lance-oblong,  acute:  calyx  closing  in 
fruit  and  beset  with  minutely  hooked  bristles.    Fields,  native. 

C.  LITHOSPfiRMUM.    Gromwell.    Puccoon. 

Hairy  herbs  with  roots  usually  red:  leaves  alternate,  entire:  flowers  in 
1-^  fy-bracted  racemes  or  spikes:  calyx-segments  5,  narrow:  corolla  funriel- 
cr  salver-form,  5-lobed,  sometimes  crested  in  throat:  stamens  5,  with  short 
filinients,  included  on  corolla-throat:  stigma  2-lobed:  nutlets  4,  smooth 
or  wrinkled,  usually  stony. 

L.  arv6nse,  Linn.  Rough  weed  from  Europe,  8-12  in.:  leaves  small,  lan- 
ceolate to  linear:  flowers  insignificant:  corolla  white,  hardly  as  long  as  calyx, 
without  appendages  in  throat:  nutlets  roughly  wrinkled,  dull  gray. 

L.  hirtum,  Lehm.  A  rough,  native  perennial,  with  simple  stem,  8  in.  to 
2  ft.,  on  dry,  sterile  ground:  leaves  lanceolate  or  linear,  hairy:  flowers 
densely  crowded  in  short  terminal  leafy  racemes:  corolla  bright  orange- 
yellow,  showy,  longer  than  calyx,  with  little  appendages  in  throat,  and 
woolly.   June. 

L.  can68cens,  Lehm.  Not  so  rough  as  preceding,  but  hoary  (also  native), 
6-18  in.  high  :  flowers  smaller  and  corolla-throat  appendaged,  but  not 
bearded:  yellow  flowers  axillary. 

7.  £CHinM.  Viper's  Bugloss. 

Stout  and  coarse  herbs:  leaves  alternate,  entire:  flowers  rather  large, 
i»»ually  blue  or  purplish,  in  spicate  or  panic'ed  racemes:  calyx-segments  5, 
narrow:  corolla  irregular,  with  5  unequal  lobes,  short-tubed,  and  throat  not 
bearded:  stamens  5,  unequal,  and  long-exserted:  stigmas  2  or  2-lobed: 
nutlets  4,  erect,  rough-wrinkled. 

E.  vulgare.  Linn.  Stems  1-3  ft.  erect,  leafy,  very  bristly  hairy:  leaves 
lanceolate,  sessile  on  stem,  4-8  in.  long:  flowers  showy,  purplish,  changing 
to  bright  blue  in  one-sided  spikes.  Biennial;  early  summer.  Naturalized 
from  Europe. 

XXXIX.    HYDROPHYLLACE^.     Waterleaf  Family. 

Mostly  hirsute  or  scabrous  herbs,  with  good -sized  mostly  alter- 
nate, simple  or  compound  leaves:  flowers  regular,  5-parted,  in  1-sided 
cymes,  spikes  or  racemes:  ovary  superior,  1-celled,  with  2  parietal 
placentae,  or  apparently  2-celled:  styles  2  or  2-cleft:  capsule  usually 
loculicidally  2-valved.  Nearly  200  species,  but  only  1  genus  frequent 
in  northeastern  states. 
HYDROPH'S'LLUM.     Waterleaf. 

Perennial,  usually  found  in  rich,  low  woods:  leaves  large,  petioled: 
cymes  more  or  less  coiled:  calyx  often  with  small  appendages  at  the  notches 


384  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

of  the  lobes:  corolla  bell-shape,  5-cleft,  usually  convoluted  in  bud  and 
bearing  5  folds  or  scales  inside  the  tube:  stjie  and  stamens  (with  hairy 
filaments)  projecting. 

H.  macrophyllum,  Nutt.  A  hoary-hairy  plant,  about  1  ft.  tall,  branching: 
leaves  pinnately  cut:  flower-cluster  on  long  stout  peduncle:  corolla  white 
or  bluish,  about  1  in.  across:  sepals  not  appendaged  at  base:  stamens  longer 
than  corolla. 

H.  appendicuUtum,  Michx.  Hairy,  1-1 J^  ft.  tall:  leaves  large,  mostly 
5-lobed  or  angled,  some  of  the  lower  ones  pinnately  parted:  flower  clusters 
loose:  corolla  blue:  sepals  appendaged  at  bases,  bristly  hairy:  stamens  not 
much  if  any  longer  than  corolla. 

H.  Canad6nse,  Linn.  About  1  ft.  high,  smoothish:  leaves  all  rounded, 
with  5-9  shallow  lobes,  and  heart-shaped  bases,  or  with  small  leaflets  on  the 
petioles:  corolla  white  or  purplish. 


XL.    POLEMONIACE^.     Phlox  Family. 

Herbs,  mostly  annuals  or  perennials:  flowers  regular,  in  ternoinal 
clusters,  5 -parted,  with  corolla  monopetalous:  stamens  on  corolla- 
tube,  alternate  with  lobes:  ovary  3-eelled:  style  simple  and  3-lobed: 
capsule  3-celled,  with  3,  mostly  loeulicidal,  valves.  About  200 
species  in  several  genera.     Phlox  is  the  leading  genus. 

A.  Leaves  entire,  mostly  opposite:    stamens  unequally   in- 
serted on  tube  of  the  corolla 1.  Phlox 

AA.  Leaves  pinnately  compound,  alternate:  stamens  equally 

inserted  on  the  corolla-tube 2.   PoJeynonium 

\.  PHL6X.     Fig.  218. 

Erect  or  diffuse  herbs,  stems  leafy:  leaves  without  stipules,  entire, 
mostly  sessile,  opposite,  or  alternate  above:  flowers  of  different  colors,  in 
terminal  clusters  :  corolla  salver-form,  tube  long  ;  stamens  5,  unequal, 
included  in  tube.    P.  Drummondii  is  annual;  the  others  perennial. 

P.  paniculita,  Linn.  Stems  2-4  ft.  high,  usually  stout  and  in  clumps: 
leaves  ovate-lanceolate,  or  oblong:  flowers  on  short  pedicels  in  many-flow- 
ered panicled  cymes,  terminal,  white  to  various  pinks  and  reds:  calyx-teeth 
sharp-pointed:  lobes  of  corolla  rounded  and  entire. 

P.  macul^ta,  Linn.  One  to  2  ft.  high:  stem  spotted  with  purple:  lower 
leaves  the  heavier,  lanceolate-linear:  upper  taper-pointed  with  a  heart- 
shaped  sessile  base:  panicle  elongated,  pyramidal,  of  many  pink-purple 
flowers:  calyx-teeth  less  pointed  than  in  preceding:  corolla  lobes  entire. 
All  summer.  This  and  the  preceding  species  are  the  originals  of  the  common 
perennial  phloxes  of  gardens. 

P.  divaric&ta,  Linn.  Ascending  or  diffuse  to  1  ft.,  or  more,  terminating 
in  loose  corymb,  rather  sticky-pubescent:   leaves  ovate-oblong  or  broad-Ian- 


POLEMONIACE^ — GENTIANACE^  385 

ceolate,  rounded  at  base,  acute  at  tip,  sessile,  pubescent:  corolla  large,  gray- 
ish blue  or  lilac,  the  lobes  notched:  calyx-teeth  slender  and  longer  than 
tube.    Moist  woods.    Spring. 

P.  Bubul^ta,  Linn.  Ground  or  moss  pink.  Stems  creeping,  tufted,  much 
branclied  and  leafy,  forming  a  moss-like  carpet  over  the  ground:  leaves 
about  /^  in.  long,  rigid,  linear  to  awl-shaped,  spreading  in  clusters:  flowers 
3  to  6  in  depressed  clusters,  white  to  pinkish-purple:  lobes  of  corolla  shorter 
than  tube.    Spring. 

P.  Drummbndii,  Hook.  From  Texas,  now  the  common  annual  phlox  in 
gardens:  stems  branching,  spreading,  about  1  ft.  high,  rather  <lowny- 
clamray:  flowers  showy,  in  corymbs;  various  colors  and  patterns  on  the 
corolla  and  lobes  variously  notched. 

2.  POLEMdNIUM. 

Perennial  herbs,  with  alternate  pinnately  compound  leaves:  calyx  com- 
panulate,  segments  erect  over  fruit:  corolla  bell-form  or  rotate:  stamens 
slender,  declined,  hairy  at  base,  inserted  on  corolla  base.  The  following 
native  perennials  are  often  cultivated: 

P.  r^ptans,  Linn.  Greek  valerian.  Stems  rather  weak,  diffusely  branch- 
ing (not  creeping),  6  in.  to  l}4  ft.:  leaves  smooth,  of  7  to  13  leaflets,  occa- 
sionally a  simple  one:  leaflets  lance-ovate  or  oblong,  about  1  in.  long,  with 
entire  margins:  flowers  nodding,  light  blue:  corolla  three  times  as  long  as 
calyx,  not  over  >^  in.  broad. 

P.  caeriileum.  Linn.  Jacob's  ladder.  Tall,  erect  to  1  to  3  ft.,  smooth  or 
hairy:  leaflets  9  to  17,  lanceolate,  crowded:  flowers  bright  blue,  in  erect 
long  panicles:  stamens  and  style  longer  than  corolla  lobes:  corolla  1  in, 
broad. 


XLI.    GENTIANACE^.    Gentian  Family 

Generally  smooth  herbs,  with  bitter,  colorless  juice  (tonic  proper- 
ties): entire  leaves  mostly  opposite,  sessile  and  without  stipules: 
flowers  regular,  solitary  or  in  clusters :  calyx  persistent ;  corolla  mono- 
petlaous,  with  4-  to  8-  lobed  margin,  and  with  4  to  8  stamens,  inserted 
on  tube:  capsule  2-valved,  many-seeded.  Some  600  species,  many 
very  showy. 

GENTIANA.  Gentian. 

Herbs  in  low  woods  and  damp  grounds,  flowering  mostly  in  autumn : 
flowers  solitary  or  in  clusters  and  showy,  usually  blue:  corolla  tubular, 
lobes  4  to  7,  open  or  closed,  some  having  a  membranous  fold  in  each  of  the 
notches  of  the  limb:  stamens  4  to  7:   style  short  or  wanting. 

G.  crinlta,  Froel.  Fringed  gentian.  Annual,  in  moist  soil,  blooming  in 
September  and  October:  distinguished  by  the  beautiful  flowers,  solitary  and 
terminal    on    erect    stems    (stems    about   1    ft.   tall),   pure   blue,    1]^    to 


386  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

2  in.  long,  funnel-foriu,  with  4  spreading  lobes,  having  the  margins  cut  into 
a  fringe  all  around:  leaves  clear  green,  lanceolate,  acute,  sessile. 

G.  serr^ta.  Gunner.  Similar  to  the  preceding,  but  smaller  and  corolla 
less  fringed:  leaves  linear. 

G.  Andr6w8ii, Griseb.  Closed  gentian.  Perennial:  stems  simple,  smooth, 
to  about  1%  to  2  ft.:  leaves  ovate  to  lanceolate,  with  narrow  base:  flowers 
in  terminal,  sessile  clusters:  corolla  blue  with  notched  folds  or  appendages 
on  the  margin,  never  opening. 


XLII.  ASCLEPIADACE.5:.    Milkweed  Family. 

Perennial  herbs  or  shrubs,  often  vines,  with  milky  juico:  leaves 
opposite  or  sometimes  whorled,  e.xstipulate:  flowers  generally  in  umbels, 
regular  and  5-parted,  but  very  peculiar  in  the  structure  and  connection 
of  stamens,  stigma  and  pollen:  hood-like  appendages  are  borne 
behind  the  anthers,  forming  a  corona  about  the  stigma:  stamens  5 
with  very  short  filaments,  and  mostly  monadelphous:  the  anthers  press 
against  the  fleshy  5-angled  stigma,  and  the  pollen  coheres  in  waxy  or 
granular  masses,  one  or  two  to  each  anther  sac:  fruit  of  one  or  two 
follicles:  seeds  bearing  long  silk  (Fig.  277).  About  two  thousand 
species  and  two  hundred  genera. 
ASCLilPIAS.    Milkweed.    Silkweed. 

Erect  perennial  herbs,  with  mostly  opposite,  thick  simple  leaves 
and  flowers  in  simple  umbels:  calyx  and  corolla  each  with  5  lobes,  bent 
downward,  leaving  the  crown  of  5  hood-like  appendages,  each  bearing  a  horn, 
conspicuously  surrounding  the  stamens:  filaments  generally  united,  and 
the  anthers  adherent  to  the  fleshy  stigma:  anther  2-celIed  and  each  cell  con- 
taining a  firm,  waxy,  elongated  mass  of  pollen:  adjacent  pairs  of  the  pollen 
masses  are  connected  and  suspended  from  one  of  5  glands  resembling  a  pair 
of  saddle-bags.  The  flower  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  insect  pollination,  the 
pollen  masses  being  carried  on  the  feet  of  insects. 

A.  tuberosa,  Linn.  Butterfly  weed.  Pleurisy  root.  About  2  ft.,  with  most 
conspicuous  erect  clusters  of  brilliant  orange  flowers:  leaves  irregularly  scat- 
tered on  stems,  or  alternate,  linear  or  lance-oblong,  hairy,  sessile:  pods 
nearly  erect,  finely  pubescent.    Dry  fields  and  hillsides.    Summer. 

A.  incarnata,  Linn.  Swamp  milkweed.  Fig.  245.  A  handsome  milk- 
weed of  wet  grounds:  stems  leafy,  2-5  ft.:  leaves  lanceolate  or  lance-oblong, 
acuminate,  rather  smooth,  opposite:  flowers  rose-colored  to  white,  sweet- 
scented,  in  somewhat  paniculate  umbels:  follicles  erect,  smooth. 

A.  Cornuti,  Decaisne.  Common  milkweed.  Fig.  277.  Stems  3-4  ft.  high, 
stout,  very  milky,  usually  simple,  leafy:  leaves  large,  oblong,  downy  beneath, 
stiff',  4-8  in.  long,  opposite,  short-petioled :  flowers  }4  in.  long,  greenish- 
lavender  to  la  ender,  with  strong,  sweet,  but  unpleasant  odor:  pods  rough 
or  warty. 


ASCLEPIADACE^ — APOCYNACE^         387 

A.  purpurdscens,  Linn.  Stems  erect,  1-3  ft.,  leafy,  simple  or  brandling: 
leaves  oblong  or  ovate-oblong  to  elliptical,  pointed,  short-petioled,  ,'{-0  in. 
long:  flowers  large  {%  in.)  deep  dull  purple:  pods  smooth. 

A.  varieg^ta,  Linn.  Stems  simple,  smooth,  leafy:  leaves  oval,  to  lance- 
oval,  opposite  or  whorled,  petioled,  pale  beneath,  umbels  on  downy  pedun- 
cles: corolla  white,  hoods  roundish,  sometimes  purplish.    Dry  woods. 

A.  quadrifdlia,  Linn.  Stem  1-2  ft.,  nearly  smooth,  and  leafy  below: 
one  or  two  whorls  of  4-ovate,  taper  pointed,  petioled  leaves  near  middle, 
and  above  or  below,  a  pair  of  smaller  ones:  umbels  few,  loose-flowered: 
flowers  small,  crown  white,  corolla  white,  tinged  with  pink.     Slender. 


XLIII.    APOCYNACE^.     Dogbane  Family. 

Herbs  and  woody  plants,  some  of  the  commoner  ones  resembling 
Milkweeds,  in  having  milky,  acrid  juice,  and  seeds  crested  with  silky 
hairs,  but  filaments  distinct,  pollen  granular,  and  corolla  twisted 
(rather  than  volvate)  in  the  bud:  hairs:  leaves  chiefly  opposite,  entire, 
simple,  without  stipules:  flowers  regular  and  monopetalous,  solitary 
or  in  cymes,  5-parted:  ovary  of  2  freo  carpels:  stigmas  united.  About 
one  thousand  species  and  one  hundred  and  twenty  genera. 

A.  Herbs  erect:  flowers  in  terminal  cymes  or  corymbs 1.  Apocynum 

AA.  Half  shrubby,  trailing  or  erect  plants:  flowers  solitary  in 

axils 2.    Vinca 

AAA.  Cultivated  house  and  garden  shrubs:  erect:   leaves  oppo- 
site, or  whorled  in  3's '.  Neriutn 

1.  APOCYNUM,    Dogbane. 

Upright  branching  herbs,  with  reddish,  fibrous  bark:  flowers  small, 
white  or  pink,  in  terminal  corymbs:  leaves  opposite,  entire,  acuminate: 
corolla  bell-shaped,  5-Iobed,  with  5  small,  triangular  scale-appendages 
within  the  tube,  each  alternating  with  one  of  the  flve  stamens  attached  at 
base  of  tube:  ovaries  2,  distinct:  stigma  2-lobed:  pods  long,  slender  and 
full  of  seeds  which  are  tufted  with  silky  hairs  at  one  end. 

A.  androssBiuifdlium,  Linn.  Smooth  plants,  2  to  4  or  5  ft.  tall,  with 
branches  widely  spreading,  stems  usually  purplish :  leaves  2  to  4  in.  long, 
ovate-acute,  short-petioled:  corolla  small,  %  in.  long,  bell-form,  with 
lobes,  spreading  or  recurving,  the  tube  exceeding  the  calyx.  A  very  common 
weed  along  hedge-rows,  in  light  woodlands  and  clearings. 

A.  cann^binum,  Linn,  Indian  hemj).  More  erect:  leaves  oblong  or 
oblong-ovate:  flowers  erect,  with  the  corolla  lobes  scarcely  spreading,  the 
tube  about  the  length  of  the  calyx.    Banks  and  shores. 

2.  VINCA.    Periwinkle. 

Herbs,  creeping  or  erect,  and  more  or  less  woody:  leaves  mostly  ever- 
green and  opposite:  flowers  solitary,  axillary,  5-parted:  style  1:  follicles  2, 
erect,  slender. 


dao  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

V.  minor,  Linn.  Periwinkle.  Myrtle  (improperly.)  A  familiar  trailing 
plant  of  the  garden,  lawns  and  cemeteries,  growing  in  shady  places,  and 
spreading  by  creeping  sterns:  leaves  evergreen,  oblong-ovate,  shiny:  flowers 
solitary  in  axils,  blue  (rarely  white),  the  corolla  salver-form,  about  1  in. 
across.    Spring  and  early  summer. 

V.  rdsea,  Linn.  Erect,  often  20  to  30  in.  high,  rather  woody  at  base: 
leaves  ovate,  obtuse,  on  long  petioles:  flowers  large,  on  slender  axillary 
pedicels,  white,  white  with  rose  eye,  or  plain  rose  color:  blooming  all  season 
when  grown  in  the  house  or  conservatory,  or  all  summer  in  the  garden. 
Trojdcs. 

"A.  NfiKIUM.    Oleander. 

Shrubs  from  warm  climates,  much  cultivated  in  windows  and  green- 
houses: leaves  lanceolate,  leathery  and  stiff:  flowers  in  terminal  cymes, 
white  or  pink,  single  or  double:  corolla  large,  1  to  2  in.  salverform,  the 
throat  bearing  5  fringed  or  toothed  scales:  ovary  of  2  carpels:  stamens  5, 
the  anthers  tipped  with  awn-like  bristles. 

N.  Olednder,  Linn.  Common  oleander.  Leaves  lanceolate:  flowers 
large,  rose-color  or  white,  not  fragrant,  with  crown  segments  not  fringed. 

N.  oddrum,  Soland.  Sweet  oleander.  Flower  fragrant,  and  bearing 
crown  segments  which  are  more  fringed,  and  long  anther  appendages. 


XLIV.    OLEACE^.     Olive  Family. 

Trees  or  shrubs:  leaves  simple  or  pinnately  compound,  opposite: 
flowers  various,  but  regular:  calyx  free  from  ovary,  usually  small  and 
4-lobed,  or  none:  corolla  regular,  4-parted,  or  of  4  distinct  petals,  or 
none:  stamens  2,  with  separate  filaments  inserted  on  petals,  or 
hypogynous:  ovary  2-celled:  style  one,  if  any. 

A.  Shrubs  or  very  small  trees:  leaves  simple:  flowers  perfect. 

B.  Flowers  yellow 1 .  Forsythia 

^  BB.  Flowers  white  or  lilac. 

c.  Fruit  a  dry  pod,  loculicidal 2.  Syringa 

CO.  Fruit  berry-like. 

D.   Klowers  practically  polypetalous:    petals  long, 

narrow:   flowers  drooping 3.   Chionanthns 

DD.   H lowers    gamopetalous:    corolla    tube    funnel- 
form.  4-lobed:  flowers  erect 4.  Ligustrum 

AA.  Large  forest  trees:  leaves  pinnately  compound:  flowers 

imperfect,  mostly  dioecious:   fruit  a  samara 5.  Fraxinus 

1.  FORSYTHIA. 

Ornamental  shrubs  from  the  Orient,  with  opposite  simple  or  trifoliolate 
leaves:  flowers  perfect,  the  deciduous  calyx  and  the  bell-shaped  corolla  in  4 
parts:  stamens  2  on  base  of  corolla:  style  short:  pod  2-celled,  many-seeded. 


olleaceje  389 

F.  Tiridissima,  Lindl.  Strong  hardy  shrub,  with  green  branches  covered 
with  showy  yellow  flowers,  separate  on  pedicels  in  early  spring  before 
leaves  appear:  leaves  simple,  lance-oblong:  corolla  lobes  narrow  oblong'  and 
spreading:  style  twice  as  long  as  stamens. 

F.  susp6n8a,  Vahl.  Branches  slender  and  drooping:  corolla-lobes  larger 
and  more  spreading  and  style  shorter  than  in  preceding:  leaves  simple, 
broadly-ovate,  also  frequently  trifoliolate  on  same  bush. 

2.  SYRlNGA.     Lilac. 

Common  ornamental  shrubs,  usually  tall,  with  leaves  simple,  entire, 
opposite:  many  small  fragrant  flowers  in  close  terminal  panicles  or  thyrses: 
calyx  4-toothed:  corolla  salver-form,  tube  long:  limb  4-lobed:  stamens  2,  on 
summit  of  corolla-tube:  fruit  a  4-seeded  flattened  pod,  2-valved:  seeds  flat- 
tened, somewhat  winged  or  margined.  No  native  species.  The  name  Syringa 
is  sometimes  popularly  applied  to  Philadelphus. 

S.  vulgS,ris,  Linn.  Common  lilac.  Well-known  bushy  shrub  from 
eastern  Europe:  flowers  purple,  lilac  to  white  in  dense  upright  thyrses,  very 
fragrant:  leaves  heart-shaped,  entire,  smooth. 

S.  P6rsica,  Linn.  Persian  lilac.  Less  bushy,  and  more  slender  than 
the  common  lilac:  leaves  lance-ovate,  the  bases  tapering:  and  pale  lilac 
or  white  flowers  in  loose  clusters,  appearing  later. 

3.  CHIONANTHUS.     Fringe-tree. 

Shrub  or  small  tree  with  opposite,  simple,  entire,  petioled  leaves: 
flowers  in  large  loose  axillary  rather  drooping  panicles:  calyx  small,  per- 
sistent: corolla  white,  with  4  long,  narrow  petals,  scarcely  united  at  base: 
stamens  2-4,  but  scarcely  adherent  to  corolla  bxse:  drupe  usually  1-seeded. 

C.  Virginica,  Linn.  Native  to  moist  southern  woods,  but  cultivated 
for  ornament:  leaves  oval  to  oblong,  3-5  in.  long:  panicles  with  some 
leafy  bracts:  flowers  conspicuous,  in  spring,  appearing  with  leaves:  petals 
1  in.  long. 

4.  LIGtSTRUM.     Privet.     Prim. 

Stiff  shrubs  or  very  small  trees:  leaves  simple,  entire,  firm  and  thickish, 
short-petioled,  opposite:  flowers  small,  white,  in  terminal  tliyrses  or  pan- 
icles: calyx  small,  minutely  tootlied  or  truncate:  corolla  funnel-form, 
4-lobed,  spreading:  stamens  2,  inserted  on  corolla-tube:  ovary  2celled: 
fruit  a  1-4-seeded,  black  berry. 

L.  vulg&,re,  Linn.  Leaves  thick,  elliptic-lanceolate,  abundant,  persistent, 
but  deciduous:  flowers  i<i'-in.  wide  and  white:  calyx  smooth:  berries  black. 
Eastern  Europe.     Used  mostly  for  hedges. 

5.  FRAXINUS.   Ash.    (Fig.  127.) 

Deciduous  trees,  some  of  them  valuable  for  timber:  leaves  odd-pinnate, 
petiolate:  flowers  small,  insignificant,  dioecious  (polygamous  in  some  species), 
racemed  or  panicled— the  American  species  apetalous,  appearing  before  or 
with  the  leaves:  calyx  4-toothed,  small,  seldom  wanting:  stigma  2-clett: 
fruit  a  flat  1-  (or  2-)  celled  key,  winged.    Several  species. 


990  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

F.  Americana,  Linn.  White  ash.  Forest  tree,  40-80  ft.,  with  rough, 
blackish  bark,  and  gray,  smooth  branches:  leaflets  5-9,  ovate  or  lance-oblong 
and  acuminate,  entire  or  sparingly  serrate,  pale  or  downy  beneath,  smooth 
above,  the  lateral  leaflets  stalked:  flowers  mostly  dia?cious,  apetalous:  calyx 
present  in  fertile  flowers,  and  persistent:  fruit  with  lanceolate  wing  at  apex, 
base  nearly  cylindrical,  the  key  l}^-2  in.  long. 

F.  pub6scens,  Lam.  Ked  ash.  A  smaller  tree  than  the  white  ash:  young 
shoots  and  leaf  petioles  and  lower  leaf  surfaces  velvety -pubescent:  calyx 
persistent  on  fertile  flowers:  fruit  narrow,  flattened  at  base,  the  edges  dilated 
into  the  oblanceolate  wing. 

F.  excelsior,  Linn.  European  ash,  often  planted:  leaflets  9-13,  ovate- 
lanceolate  or  oblong,  acute,  serrate:  fruit  oblong,  often  notched  at  end. 


XLV.   PRIMULACE^.     Primrose  Family. 

Low  herbs  with  leaves  radical  or  opposite:  flowers  perfect,  regu- 
lar, 5  parted,  monopetalous:  stamens  5,  inserted  in  corolla-tube,  each 
opposite  a  lobe:  style  and  stigma  1:  ovary  1-celled,  superior,  with 
three  central  placentae.    About  300  species  in  sonae  25  genera. 

A.  Plants  with  all  leaves  basal:  flowers  on  a  scape. 

B.  Corolla-lobes  spreading 1.  Primula 

BB.  Corolla-lobes  reflexed. 

C.  Several  fls.  on  the  scape:  stamens  protruding 2.  Dodecathi'on 

cc.  One  flower  on  the  scape:   stamens  included 3.   Cyclamen 

AA.  Plants  with  leafy  stems 4.  Lysimachia 

L  PElMULA.     Primrose.     Cowslip  (of  England).    Auricula. 

Low  perennial  herbs,  with  radical  leaves:  flowers  in  an  involucrate 
umbel  in  most  species,  terminal  on  a  scape:  calyx  5-cleft:  corolla  salver- 
sliaped,  with  5  spreading  lobes,  entire  or  notched:  stamens  5,  with  short 
filaments  included  in  corolla-tube,  often  of  different  lengths:  capsules 
ovoid,  opening  by  valves  or  teeth  at  the  top.  Native  species  rare,  but  a 
number  of  exotic  primroses  are  much  cultivated. 

P.  Sinensis,  Sabine.  Downy  greenhouse  plant:  flowers  in  umbels,  large . 
and  showy,  of  different  colors,  single  or  double:  calyx  large  and  inflated: 
leaves  cordate,  7-9-lobed,  on  long  petioles.    China. 

P.  obc6nica,  Hance.  Leaves  ovate-cordate:  scapes  a  foot  high,  bearijig 
pink,  purplish  or  whitish  flowers  in  large  clusters,  the  petals  obconical  and 
notched  at  the  end:  tube  twice  longer  than  the  shallow-spreading  calyx. 
The  hairs  on  this  plant  are  poisonous  to  some  persons.    Greenhouses.    China. 

P.  Fdrbesi,  Franch.  Bahy  primrose.  Scapes  many  and  very  slender, 
6-12  in.,  loosely  hairy,  bearing  small  lilac  or  rose  flowers  in  successive 
whorls  on  slender  pedicels:  leaves  small  and  crowded  at  the  crown,  oblong, 
somewhat  sinuate-toothed.    Greenhouses.    China. 

P.  Poly^ntha,  Hort.    Polyanthus.    Hardy  Primulas,  grown  in  borders  foi 


PRIMULACE^ — ERICACE^  391 

the  early  spring  bloom,  of  hybrid  origin :  leaves  upright,  oblong,  tapering  into 
a  winged  petiole,  shallowly  toothed,  rugose  beneath:  flowers  not  much  over- 
topping the  leaves,  tubular  with  spreading  limb,  in  shades  of  yellow  and  red. 

2.  DODECATHEON. 

Smooth  perennial  herbs:  leaves  radical,  simple,  oblong  or  spatulate: 
flowers  nodding  in  a  terminal  umbel  on  erect,  unbranching,  leafless  scapes, 
with  involucres  of  small  bracts:  calyx  5-cleft,  lobes  reflexed:  corolla-tube 
very  short,  5-parted,  and  the  segments  strongly  reflexed:  stamens  5,  with 
shorts  filaments,  united  at  base,  the  anthers  long,  acute  and  uniting  at  tip, 
forming  a  cone:   style  exserted. 

D.  Meadia,  Linn.  Shooting  star.  Wild  in  open  woodland  in  Central  States 
and  South  and  West,  also  cultivated:  resembles  Cyclamen  in  the  flow- 
ers, which  are  white  or  rose-purple,  nodding  on  slender  pedicels:  scape  6  in. 
to  2  ft.  high. 

3.  CYCLAMEN. 

Glabrous  plants  from  fleshy  corm :  leaves  all  basal,  rounded,  cordate  or 
ovate:  scapes  bearing  (each)  one  nodding  flower:  corolla-limb  5-parted, 
lobes  turning  back:  anthers  5,  sessile,  not  exserted.  Cultivated  as  house 
plants,  flowering  in  winter. 

C.  latifdlium,  Sibth.  &  Sm.  (C.  Persicmn).  Leaves  ovate,  crenate-den- 
tate,  thick,  often  marked  with  white:  flowers  large,  white,  rose  or  purple, 
sometimes  spotted,  oblong.    The  florist's  cyclamen. 

4.  LYSIMACHIA.    Loosestrife. 

Perennials  with  leaves  opposite  or  whorled,  entire,  often  glandular- 
dotted:  flowers  yellow,  solitary  in  axils,  or  panicled:  calyx  5-  to  7  parted : 
corolla  wheel-form:  petals  5-7,  nearly  distinct:  stamens  5-7,  the  filaments 
somewhat  connate  at  base.     Wild  in  low  grounds. 

L.  vulgaris,  Linn.  Erect  2-3  ft.,  downy:  leaves  3  or  4  in  a  whorl: 
flowers  in  terminal  leafy  .panicles;  corolla-lobes  glal)rous.  Europe.  Culti- 
vated and  escaped. 

L.  quadrifolia,  Linn.  Erect,  1-2  ft.,  hairy:  leaves  lanceolate-ovate,  ses- 
sile, dotted,  commonly  four  in  a  whorl:  flowers  yellow,  with  dark  lines,  on 
slender  pedicels,  solitary  from  axils  of  upper  leaves.    Damp  soil. 

L.  nummul^ria,  Linn.  Moneywort.  Trailing  glabrous  perennial:  leaves 
round,  opposite,  on  short  petioles:  flowers  pure  yellow,  axillary,  solitary,  on 
short  peduncles:  stamen  filaments  glandular,  connate  at  base.  Running  wild 
in  moist  places,  often  a  weed  in  lawns. 


XLVI.    ERICACE.5:.     Heath  Family 

Plants  of  various  kinds,  many  of  them  shrubs  or  shrubby  herbs, 
some  trees,  perennial  herbs,  and  parasites:  leaves  simple  and  often 
evergreen,    or    scale-like:     flowers    mostly    perfect:     corolla    usually 


392  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

monopetalous  and  4-  or  5-cleft:  stamens  hypogynous,  as  many  or 
twice  as  many  as  petals,  anthers  usually  opening  by  terminal  pores: 
style  1 :  ovary  generally  as  many  celled  as  corolla  has  lobes.  A  large 
family,  represented  by  Heaths,  Cranberry,  Azaleas,  Arbutus,  Laurel. 

A.  Shrubs,  or  creeping  shrubby  plants. 
B.  Ovary  inferior:  fruit  a  berry. 

o.   Berry  lO-seeded 1.  Gaylussacia 

cc.  Berry  many-seeded 2.    Vaccinium 

BB.  Ovary  superior. 

c.  Low  creeping  or  procumbent. 

D.  Fruit  berry-lilse:  leaves  aromatic 3.   GauUheria 

DD.  Fruit  dry 4.  Epigwa 

cc.  Shrubs,  erect. 

E.  Corolla  broadly  open,  with  10  little  pouches 

holding  the  anthers .5.  Knlmia 

EE.  Corolla    bell-shaped,    no    pockets:     flowers 

from  terminal,  scaly  buds 6.  Azalea 

AA.  Parasitic  herbs,  destitute    of   green    fol'age,  about    the 

roots  of  trees 7.  Monotropa 

1.  GAYLUSSACIA.    Low-bush  Huckleberry. 

Shrubs  low  and  branching,  leaves  and  branches  sometimes  witn  resinous 
dots:  leaves  alternate,  entire  or  serrate:  flowers  in  lateral  racemes,  small, 
white  or  pink,  nodding  on  bracted  pedicels,  in  late  spring:  corolla  bell-like 
or  ovoid,  with  5  lobes  erect  or  reflexing:  stamens  10,  usually  included: 
ovary  10-celled:  fruit  berry-like,  containing  10  little  stones,  blue  or  black, 
sweet  and  edible,  ripe  in  late  summer. 

G.  resindsa.  Torr.  &  Gray.  Highland  huckleberrij.  Shrub,  1  to  3  ft., 
with  stiff  branches  and  deciduous  entire  oval  leaves,  sprinkled  with 
resinous  dots:  flowers,  in  one-sided  racemes:  corolla  white,  tinged  with 
pink,  cylindrical  or  somewhat  5-angled,  and  contracted  at  margin:  berry 
bhick,  not  glaucous. 

G.  fronddsa,  Torr.  &  Gray.  Tangle-berry.  Shrub  1  to  3  ft.,  with  stiff 
spreading  branches:  leaves  oblong  to  obovate,  thin,  smootli  and  pale  below, 
resinous-dotted:  corolla  white,  tinged  with  pink,  short:  berry  large,  dark 
blue,  with  a  bloom. 

2.  VACClNIUM.  Blueberry.  Cranberry.  Bilberry.  High-bush  Huckle- 

berry. 

Shrubs  much  resembling  Gaylussacia,  but  the  ovary  only  4-  to  5-celled, 
although  appearing  to  have  twice  as  many  cells  by  false  partitions:  fruit  a 
many-seeded  berry,  generally  edible.    Fruit  ripe  in  summer  and  autumn. 

V.  Pennsylvinicum,  Lam.  Divarf  earl;/  blueberry.  Shrub,  6  to  20  in., 
with  sinootli  green  warty  branches:  leaves  deciduous,  lance-oblong,  smooth 
and  glossy,  but  edges  serrated  and  tipped  with  little  bristly  spines:  flowers 


ERICACE^  393 

in  clusters,  with  corolla  cylindrical,  wliito  or  pink-tinged,  5-toothed: 
anthers  10,  included:  berry  many  seeded,  blue-black  with  a  bloom,  edible. 

V.  corymbdsum,  Linn.  High-bush,  or  swamp,  huckleberry.  Blueberry. 
Tiill  busli,  witli  obloni^  or  elliptical  leaves:  berries  blue,  sweei,  usually  with 
a  thick  l)Iooiii. 

V.  macrocdrpon,  Ait.  Cranberry.  Creeping,  slender,  scarcely  woody: 
leaves  small,  about  }/i  in.  lonj;;,  evergreen,  oval  or  oblong  and  margins 
rolled:  flowers  solitary,  on  slender  erect  pedicels,  pale  pinkish,  deeper 
colored  within,  with  4  narrow  reflexed  segments. 

3.  GAULTHfiRIA.    Wintergreen.    Checkerberry. 

Stem  procumbent,  with  leafy  branches  erect:  leaves  alternate,  evergreen 
and  tasting  spicj'  and  aromatic;  flowers  wliite  or  pink,  nodding  on  axillary 
pedicels:  corolla  oblong  or  short-cylindrical  with  5  short  lobes;  anthers  10, 
awned  at  top:  fruit  berry-like,  with  capsule  inside  the  thickened  calyx. 

G.  procumbens,  Linn.  Leaves  oval  or  obovate,  much  sought  for  their 
spicy  Havor,  as  well  as  the  edible  red,  mealj'  berries,  which  last  all  winter. 
In  low  and  evergreen  woods,  6  in.  or  less  tall. 

4.  EPIG.ffiA.     Trailing  Arbutus.     Mayflower. 

Trailing  close  to  the  ground,  with  rusty-hairy  stems,  and  alternate 
evergreen  rounded  leathery  leaves:  flowers  dimorphous,  in  clusters  at 
ends  of  branches,  bracted,  sessile:  sepals  5,  persistent  but  scale-like:  corolla 
salver-forra,  with  5  lobes:   stamens  10:  ovary  5-lobed. 

£.  ripens,  Linn.  A  favorite  flower  of  very  early  spring,  white  to  pink, 
/4-in.  broad,  spicy-scented  and  wax-like,  in  small  clusters  from  axils  of  the 
rusty  leaves.     Mostly  North. 

5.  KALMIA.     American  Laurel. 

Shrubs,  native  (belonging  to  East  and  South),  with  entire  evergreen 
leaves:  flowers  in  umbels:  corolla  open,  saucer-like,  5-angIed  with  10  little 
pits  in  which  the  anthers  of  the  10  stamens  are  caught  until  mature,  or 
disturbed  by  insects,  when  the  curved  filaments  spring  upward,  discharging 
the  pollen:   style  long  and  slender. 

K.  latifolia,  Linn.  Common  mountain  laurel.  Stout  shrub,  4-20  ft.: 
often  forming  great  patches  on  wild  or  rocky  hillsides;  also  cultivated: 
flowers  about  1  in.  across,  rosy,  or  white  and  red-spotted,  in  terminal  c(  m- 
pound  corymbs:  leaves  mostly  alternate,  thick,  acute,  green  on  both  sides, 
lance-ovate:  lilooms  in  early  summer.     East  and  North. 

K.  angustifblia,  Linn.  Sheep  laurel.  LambkiU.  Low  shrub  with 
flowers  about  >2-in.  across,  crimson  or  purplish,  in  lateral  corymbs:  leaves 
narrow,  obtuse,  short  petioled,  opposite  or  in  threes,  pale  beneath.  Hillsides. 

6.  AZALEA. 

Shrubs,  with  deciduous  leaves:  flowers  showy,  in  terminal,  umbel-like 
clusters:  calyx  minute,  5-parted  :  corolla  cylindrical-tubed:  stamens  usu- 
ally   5:    style   long,    slender,   exserted.      Rhododendron   is  closely  allied, 


394  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

having  evergreen  leaves,  stamens  usually  10,  stamens  and  style  usually  not 
exserted. 

A,  viscdsa,  Linn.  Swamp  hnneysnckle.  Stems  4-10  ft.,  branching: 
leaves  obovate,  short-petioled,  mostly  smooth  above  and  downy  on  under 
veins:  flowers  in  summer  after  the  leaves,  fragrant,  white.  1-2  in.  long, 
with  slender  tubes  rather  sticky-coated,  the  tube  longer  tlian  the  lobes.  A 
swamp  plant. 

A.  nudifldra,  Linn.  Plnrter  floiver.  Shrub  .3-6  ft.,  in  swamps:  flowers 
before  or  with  leaves,  rose-pink  or  white,  fragrant,  1-2  in.  across,  the  tube 
about  the  length  of  the  lobes. 

Bhodbra   Canadensis,  Linn.,  or   Bhodod6ndron '  Rhoddra,   Don,  of   New 
England,  is  a  low  shrub,  2-.'?  ft.,  with  fine  large  (1  in.  wide)  rose-colored 
flowers  appearing  before  leaves. 
7.  MONOTROPA.     Indian  Pipe.     Pine-sap. 

Low  herbs,  parasitic  on  roots  or  saprophytic,  no  green  about  them,  but 
stem  bearing  small  scales:  flowers  solitary  or  in  racemes:  sepals  2,  bract- 
like :  petals  4  or  5  erect  or  spreading,  wedge-shaped:  stamens  8-10,  hypogynous, 
anthers  kidney-shaped:  ovary  4-5-eelled,  stigma  radiate  or  disk-like. 

M.  unifldra,  Linn.  Indian  pipe.  Corpse  plant.  Odd  fleshy  waxy- 
white  little  plants,  turning  black  when  drying:  stem,  3-6  in.  high,  bent 
over  at  the  top  with  one  nodding  terminal  flower. 

M.  Hypdpitys,  Linn.  Pine-sap.  In  oak  and  pine  woods:  stems  scaly, 
white  or  tawny  red,  4-8  in.  high,  single  or  in  groups:  flowers  several,  small, 
rather  fragrant,  in  a  scaly  raceme. 


XLVII.    RUBIACE.E.     Madder  Family. 

A  large  and  important  family  of  herbs,  shrubs,  trees  (including 
Cinchona  or  Peruvian  Bark,  and  Coffee)  :  leaves  opposite,  or 
in  threes  with  stipules  between,  or  apparently  whorled  without 
stipules:  flowers  perfect,  sometimes  dimorphous  (of  two  sorts)  or 
trimorphous:  calyx-tube  adherent  to  ovary,  margin  3- to  G-toothed: 
corolla  regular,  inserted  on  calyx-tube,  and  of  same  number  of  lobes: 
stamens  of  equal  number  as  corolla- lobes  and  alternate  with  them: 
ovary  1-  to  10-celled:  fruit  a  capsule,  berry  or  drupe.  A  large  family 
(some  5,000  species),  largely  tropical. 

A.  Leaves  4-8  in  a  whorl:   no  apparent  stipules:   fruit  2 

nutlets,  bur-like,  or  sometimes  berry-like 1.   Galium 

aa.  Leaves  opposite  (or  whorled),  with  stipules. 

B.  Flowers    in    pairs,    axillary:    fruit    a    double   berry: 

creeping 2.  Mitchella 

BB.  Flowers  solitary,  or  in  terminal  clusters:  not  creep- 
ing   3.  HnHston  ia 

BBB.  Flowers  in  round  heads 4.   VephaUtnlhia, 


RUBIACE^  395 

1.  OALIUM.   Cleavers.   Bedstraw. 

Frail  herbs,  with  square  stems,  often  priciily  or  roTig:h  on  angles  and 
edges  of  leaves,  usually  diffusely  branching:  leaves  apparently  whorled  and 
without  stipules:  flowers  small  or  minute,  sometimes  dioecious,  in  cymes  or 
panicles,  axillary  or  terminal:  calyx  minutely  4-Iobed:  corolla  3- to  4-lobed: 
stamens  3  to  4:  ovary  2-ceiled:  fruit  small,  double,  dry  or  fleshy,  berry-like, 
indehiscent,  or  sometimes  with  only  1  carpel  ripening.    Many  species. 

G.  aspr611um,  Michx.  Weak,  reclining,  or  nearly  erect  branching 
perennial,  the  angles  of  stems  with  backwark-pointing  prickles:  leaves 
small,  not  1  in.  long,  whorled  in  4's  or  5's  on  branches,  usually  6  on  stem: 
edges  and  mid-ribs  rough  with  prick  es:  flowers  tiny,  white,  numerous, 
loosely  clustered  at  end  of  branches:  fruit  small,  smooth. 

G.  circa^zans,  Michx.  Wild  liquorice.  Perennial,  branching,  ascending 
stems  with  leaves  in  4's,  not  prickly:  leaves  oval  to  oblong,  obtuse,  more 
or  less  pubescent,  an  inch  or  more  long:  flower.s  dull  greenish  or  brownish, 
on  very  short  pedicels  in  branched  cymes:  fruit  on  reflexed  pedicels, 
bristly:  root  and  leaves  with  sweetish  taste.    Dry  woods.    Common. 

G.  Aparine,  Linn.  Cleavers.  Goose  orass.  Annual,  stems  weak,  pros- 
trate, scrambling,  and  diffuse,  with  backward-pointing  barbs  on  angles: 
small  lanceolate  leaves,  6  to  8  in  a  whorl,  about  1  in.  long,  rough  on  edges 
and  midrib:  peduncles  axillary,  1-  to  3-flowered:  flowers  tiny,  white  or 
greenish:  fruit  a  dry  little  bur,  covered  with  hooked  prickles,  on  erect 
pedicels.    Low  ground  or  thickety  woodland. 

2.  MITCHflLLA.  Partridge-berry.   Squaw-vine. 

Trailing,  evergreen-leaved  herb:  leaves  opposite,  round-ovate,  dark-green, 
smooth  and  glossy,  entire,  on  short  petioles:  flowers  small,  dimorphous,  in 
pairs,  on  a  double  ovary  (2  ovaries  united)  from  leaf  axils:  corolla  funnel- 
form,  4-parted,  bearded  within,  white  with  pink  tips  to  lobes:  stamens  and 
stigmas  4:  fruit  a  double  scarlet  berry,  each  berry  with  4  seeds  or  stones. 

M.  rdpens,  Linn.  A  pretty  little  creeper  of  woods  in  the  North:  flowers 
fragrant  and  delicate,  in  June,  the  double  scarlet  berries  found  all  winter. 

3.  HOUSTONIA.   Bluets. 

Low,  delicate  little  herbs,  with  stems  erect,  simple  or  branching;  leaves 
opposite,  entire,  stipules  entire  and  short,  or  a  mere  line  connecting  bases 
of  the  opposite  leaves;  flowers  generally  dimorphous  in  respect  to  anthers 
and  stigmas,  small,  solitary  or  clustered:  calyx  4-toothed:  corolla  tubular, 
rotate,  4-lobed:  stamens  4  on  corolla:  fruit  a  short  pod,  2-eelled,  many- 
seeded,  opening  at  the  top,  upper  part  free  from  calyx. 

H.  coeriilea,  Linn.  Perennial,  3-6  in.,  the  stems  erect,  very  slender,  in 
tufts,  from  slender  rootstocks:  leaves  sessile,  oblong  or  spatulate,  M-3^  in. 
long,  often  hairy:  flowers  blue  to  white,  with  yellow  centers,  solitary  on 
peduncle.    Early  spring  to  summer,  very  floriferous. 

4.  CEPHALANTHUS.   Button-bush. 

Shriihs  (or  small  trees):  leaves  entire,  opposite  or  verticillate:  flowers 
small  and  many,  white  or  yellow,  m  close  round  heads,  on  peduncles:  calyx 


396  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

4-toothed:  corolla  tubular,  with  4  short  lobes:  stamens  4  on  corolla  throat: 
style  long  and  exserted:  fruit,  small,  dry,  inversely  pyramidal. 

C.  OCcidentEllis,  Linn.  Tall  shrub  with  leaves  in  2's  or  3's,  oval-pointed, 
petioled.  with  stipules  between:  heads  of  whitish  flowers  about  1  inch  in 
diameter.    Usually  along  streams  and  pond  banks. 


XLVIII.    CAPRIFOLIACE^.     Honeysuckle  Family. 

Erect  or  twining  shrubs,  or  sometimes  herbs,  with  opposite  mostly 
simple  leaves:  flowers  epigynous,  5-merous,  regular  or  irregular, 
tubular  or  rotate:  stamens  usually  as  many  as  the  lobes  of  the  corolla 
and  inserted  on  its  tube:  ovary  2-5-loculed,  ripening  into  a  berry, 
drupe,  or  capsule.  About  15  genera  and  200  species.  Characteristic 
plants  are  honeysuckle,  elder,  viburnum,  snowberry,  weigela, 
twin -flower, 

A,  Corolla  long-tubular. 

B.  Fruit  a  berry  (often  two  together)  several-seeded:  leaf 

margins  entire  or  wavy  edged:  sometimes  connate.  .1.  Lonicera 
BB.  Fruit  a  linear-oblong   capsule,  2-valved,  many-seeded: 

leaf  margin  serrate 2.   Diervilla 

AA.  Corolla  shallow,  usually  rotate. 

B.   Leaves  simple 3.   Viburnum 

BB.  Leaves  pinnately  compound 4.  Sambucus 

1.  LONlCERA.     Honeysuckle. 

Erect  or  twining  shrubs,  with  tubular,  funnelform,  more  or  less  irregular 
flowers  (often  2-lipped) :  corolla  bulging  on  one  side  near  the  base:  stamens 
5:  fruit  a   berry,  usually   2  ^ 

together  from  2  contiguous  (7^^-- 

flowers.  ^-^-^^        ^^^\% 

^.  Ere.i.  C'"'^->P^     fX^T 

L.  ciliata,  Muhl.    Open,  dfl^'^?^  " 

smooth  bush,  3-5  ft. :  leaves    '-' ^~ 

cordate  -  oblong,  not  sharp- 
pointed,  entire:  flowers  less 
than  1  in.  long,  soft  yellow 
the  lobes  nearly  equal  :  ber- 

ries  red.  Common  in  woods.  "95.  Loniceia  Japonica. 

Blooms  in  very  early  spring. 

L.  TatArica,  Linn.  Tartarian  honeysuckle.  Fig.  85.  Tall  shrub  (to 
12  ft.):  leaves  cordate-oval,  not  long-pointed,  entire:  flowers  pink  or  red 
(sometimes  nearly  white),  2-lipped,  all  the  lobes  oblong.  Asia,  but  com- 
mon in  yards.     Spring. 


CAPKIFOLIACE^  397 

aa.  Twining. 

L.  Japbnica,  Thunb.  (L.  Halliana  of  gardens).  Fig.  495.  Weak  twiner, 
with  oblong  or  ovate  entire  nearly  evergreen  leaves:  flowers  small,  on  short 
pedicels,  fragrant,  opening  white  or  blush  but  changing  to  yellow.  Japan; 
much  cultivated. 

L.  Pericl^menum,  Linn.  Probably  the  commonest  of  the  old-fashioned 
climbing  honeysuckles  (from  Old  World) :  strong  and  woody:  leaves  oblong- 
ovate,  not  joined  by  their  bases,  entire,  dark  green  above  and  pale  beneath: 
flowers  large,  reddish  outside  and  yellow  inside,  very  fragrant,  in  a  dense, 
long-stalked  cluster. 

L.  semp6rvirens,  Ait.  Trumpet  or  coral  honeysuckle.  Fig.  134.  Gla- 
brous twining  shrub,  with  leaves  evergreen,  oblong,  entire,  glaucous,  upper 
pairs  joined  at  base  about  the  stem,  appearing  perfoliate:  flowers  nearly 
sessile,  in  rather  distant  whorled  clusters  on  terminal  spikes,  the  corolla 
trumpet-shape,  tube  almost  regularly  5-lobed,  lK-2  in.  long,  scarlet  without, 
yellowish  within:  stamens  and  style  not  much,  if  any  projecting.  Moist  or 
low  ground,  often  cultivated. 

2.  DIERVlLLA.    Pu.^h  Honeysuckle. 

Erect,  low  shrubs  or  bushes:  leaves  simple,  opposite,  ovate  or  oblong, 
acute-pointed,  serrate,  deciduous:  flowers  in  axillary  or  terminal  cymes,  or 
solitary:  calyx-tube  slender,  limb  of  5  slender,  persistent  lobes:  corolla 
funnel-form,  5  lobes  almost  regular:  stamens  5:  ovary  inferior,  2-celled, 
1  filiform  style:  fruit  slender  2-cened  many-seeded  pod,  crowned  with 
calyx. 

D.  trifida,  Moench.  Bushy  shrub,  1-4  ft.:  leaves  oval  to  ovate,  taper- 
pointed,  on  short  petioles:  peduncles  terminal  or  in  upper  axils,  mostly  :i- 
flowered:  corolla  slender,  tubular,  greenish-yellow  {honey  color),  not  over 
%  in.  long.    Banks.    Summer. 

D.  h^brida,  Hort.  Weigela.  Shrub,  2-8  ft.:  leaves  oval,  acute  coarsely 
serrate,  rather  rough  above  and  soft  below,  short-petioled:  flowers  funnel- 
form,  1-1^  in.  long:  tube  downy  without:  5-lobed:  the  limb  spreading.  A 
group  of  common  garden  shrubs,  derived  from  two  or  more  Japanese 
species,  with  white,  pink  or  red  showy  flowers. 

3.  VIBURNUM.     Akrowwood. 

Erect  shrubs,  with  simple  leaves  and  small  whitish  flowers  in  broad 
cymes:  stamens  5:  stigmas  1-3:  fruit  a  small  1-seeded  drupe 

a.    Flowers  all  alike  in  the  cyme. 

V.  Lentigo,  Linn.  Black  haw.  Sheepberrij.  Fig.  279.  Tall  shrub 
(to  20  ft.):  leaves  ovate-pointed,  finely  and  sharply  serrate,  shining  above, 
on  long  margined  petioles:  fruit  >^  in.  or  more  long,  black.     Common. 

V.  acerfdlium,  Linn.  Dockmackie.  Arrowwood.  Six  ft.  or  less:  leaves 
3  lobed  and  maple-like,  downy  beneath:  cyme  small  and  slender-stalked  : 
fruit  flat  and  small.     Woods. 


398  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

aa.  Flowers  lanjer  on  (he  margin  of  the  cyme. 

v.  Opulus,  Linn.  Uigh-bush  cranberry.  Erect,  10  ft.  or  less:  leaves  3- 
lobed  and  toothed:  outer  flowers  sterile  and  large:  fruit  an  acid  red  edible 
drupe.  Swamps.  In  cultivation  all  the  flowers  have  become  sterile,  result- 
ing in  the  "snowball."    Compare  Figs.  23G,  237. 

V.  tomentdsum,  Thunb.  (  V.  plicafum  of  gardens).  Japanese  snoxvbaU. 
Leaves  not  lobed,  shallow-toothed,  thickish,  plicate:  heads  of  sterile  flowers 
axillary,  globular.     Japan. 

V.  lantanoides,  Michx.  Uohbhbush.  About  5  ft.,  with  straggling 
branches,  often  arching  to  ground  and  rooting,  thus  making  loops  or 
"liobbles":  flowers  resemble  those  of  wild  hj-drangea,  in  flat  topped-eymes, 
with  marginal  flowers  larger,  sterile  and  showy,  white:  leaves  very  large, 
rounder  heart-shaped,  finely  serrate,  petioles  and  veinlets  scurfy:  drupes 
coral-red,  becoming  purple,  not  edible.     Cold  woods  and  swamps. 

4.  SAMBtJCUS.    Elder. 

Strong  shrubs,  with  pinnate  leaves  and  sharp-serrate  leaflets:  flowers  in 
dense  corymbose  cymes:  calyx- teeth  very  small  or  none:  corolla  shallow, 
open:  stamens  5:  stigmas  3:  pith  prominent  in  the  stems.     Common. 

S.  racemdsa,  Linn.  Jfed  elder.  Pith  and  berries  red-  flowers  in  spring 
in  pyramidal  clusters:  leaflets  lanceolate,  downy  beneatn. 

S.  Canad^nsiB,  Linn.  Common  elder.  White  elder.  Pith  white:  berries 
black-purple,  in  late  summer,  edible:  flower-clusters  convex  or  nearly  flat, 
in  summer:  leaflets  oblong,  smooth. 


XLIX.    CAMPANULACE^.     Bell-flower   Family. 

Herbs  (with  us):  leaves  alternate,  simple,  without  stipules:  flow- 
ers regular  and  perfect,  mostly  bell-shaped  corollas,  5-lobed  or  5- 
angled:  calyx  5-lobed:  stamens  5,  distinct:  ovary  2-5-celled:  style  1: 
stigmas  2  to  5:  fruit  a  capsule.     Some  1,200  or  more  species. 

A.  Corolla  (of  the  conspicuous  flowers)   wheel-shape:   early 

flowers  not  opening  (cleistogamous) 1.  Specularia 

AA.  Corolla  bell-form:  flowers  all  alike 2.   Campanula 

\.  SPECULARIA. 

Animal  herbs,  with  erect,  angled  stems,  simple  or  branching:  leaves 
entire  or  toothed:  flowers  sessile  or  nearly  so,  axillary,  solitary  or  clustered, 
the  early  ones  cleistogamous  and  small,  the  later  expanding,  light  blue, 
51obed,  wheel-shaped  corolla:  stamens  with  flattened  hairy  filaments, 
shorter  than  the  anthers. 

S.  perfoli&ta,  DC.  Stems  erect,  simple  or  branched,  10  in.  to  3  ft,  tall, 
leafy,  the  leaves  rounded  heart-shaped  or  broadly  ovate,  with  clasping  bases: 
flowers  solitary,  2  or  3  together  in  leaf  axils.     More  or  less  weedy. 


CAMPANULACE^ — LOBELIACE^  399 

S.  Speculum,  DC.  Venus^  looking-glass.  Low  garden  annual,  with  stem 
branching  diffusely:  flowers  purplish  lilac  to  rose-colored  or  white,  solitary 
and  terminal:  leaves  oblong,  crenate. 

2.  CAMPANULA.    Bell-flower.     Harebell. 

Flowers  solitary  or  racemed  or  spiked,  blue  or  white,  not  cleistogamous: 
calyx  5-lobed:  corolla  bell-shaped:  pod  roundish,  opening  at  sides  (Fig.  25G;. 

C.  aparinoides,  Pursh.  A  weak,  reclining,  perennial,  Galium-like,  found 
among  grasses  in  moist  meadows:  stem  very  slender,  triangular,  angles 
bearing  rough  backward-pointing  prickles:  leaves  snuill,  lance-linear,  entire: 
flowers  very  small,  about  }4-m.  long,  white,  on  spreading  pedicels. 

C.  rotundifdiia,  Linn.  Common  harebell.  Perennial  from  slender  rooi 
stocks,  nearly  or  quite  glabrous,  5-12  in.  high:  root-leaves  rounded  or 
cordate,  often  withering  before  blooming  season,  the  stem-leaves  linear  to 
narrow  lanceolate,  entire:  flowers  few  or  solitary  on  slender  pedicels,  nod- 
ding when  open:  corolla  bell-shaped,  with  pointed  lobes,  J^-%-in.  long,  blue. 
Rocky  places,  northward. 

C.  Medium.  Linn.  Canterhurg  hell.  Cultivated  from  Europe,  annual 
or  biennial,  erect  to  3  ft.,  rather  hairy,  branching  or  simple:  leaves  lan- 
ceolate, rather  coarsely-toothed:  flowers  2-3  in.  long,  single  or  double,  blue: 
ttigmas  5:  sepals  leafy-appendaged  at  base. 


L.    LOBELIACE^.     Lobelia  Family. 

Herbs:  leaves  alternate  or  radical,  simple:  flowers  scattered, 
racemed  or  panieled,  often  leafy-bracted:  calyx-tube  adherent  to 
ovary:  corolla  irregular,  monopetalous,  5-lobed,  usually  split  on  one 
side:  stamens  5,  usually  united,  at  least  by  anthers,  about  the  one 
style:  stigma  2-lobed:  fruit  a  capsule,  loculicidally  2-valved. 

LOBELIA. 

Flowers  often  showy,  axillary  and  solitary,  or  in  terminal  bracted 
racemes:  corolla  as  if  2-lipped:  stamens  generally  unequal,  monadelphous,  2 
or  all  of  the  5  anthers  bearded  at  the  top.     Many  species. 

L.  cardinalis,  Linn.  Cardinal  flower.  Indian  pink.  A  showy  plant 
of  swamp}-  or  moist  soil,  also  cultivated:  tall,  simple  stem,  2-4  ft.,  with 
showy,  deep-red  flowers  (rarely  pale  colored),  about  1  in.  long,  bracted,  in 
terminal  racemes:  leaves  sessile,  lance-oblong,  slightly  toothed. 

L.  Erinus,  Linn.  The  common,  pretty,  annual  trailing  or  spreading 
Lol)elia  of  gardens  and  greenhouses:  flowers  many,  small,  very  blue, 
usually  with  white  throats  (varying  to  whitish):  lower  leaves  spatulate: 
upper  narrow,  toothed. 

L.  syphilitica,  Linn.  Stem  erect  to  1-3  ft.,  angular,  heavy:  loaves 
oblong-ovate,  irregularly  serrate:  flowers  in  terminal,  leafy  raceme:  flowers 
intense    blue  (or  white),  1   in.  or  more   long:    calyx  hairy  or  hispid,  lobes 


400  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

auricled  at  base,  dentate.  Perennial,  in  low  or  marshy  grounds  or  along 
streams.     Late  summer. 

L.  spicita,  Lam.  Erect  smoothish  stems,  1-3  ft.,  sparingly  leafy,  the 
terminal  raceme  with  linear,  small  bracts:  leaves  oblong,  upper  small  and 
narrow:  flowers  small,  pale  blue:  calyx-lobes  not  auricled  at  base,  entire. 
Dry,  sandy  soil. 

L.  inflata,  Linn.  Indian  tobacco.  Erect,  9-12  in.,  rather  hairy,  branching: 
leaves  ovate,  toothed:  flowers  small,  /^-in.  long,  pale  blue,  in  loose,  racemes, 
leaf y-braeted :  capsules  inflated,  large.  Common  in  fields:  juice  purgent- 
poisonous. 


LL    COMPOSITE.     Composite  or  Sunflower  Family. 

Mostly  herbs,  many  of  them  very  large,  very  various  in  foliage: 
flowers  small,  densely  packed  into  an  involucrate  head,  5-merous: 
the  corolla  of  the  outer  ones  often  developed  into  long  rays:  stamens 
5,  the  anthers  united  around  the  2  styles:  fruit  dry  and  1-seeded, 
indehiscent,  usually  crowned  with  a  pappus  which  represents  a  calyx. 
The  largest  of  all  phenogamous  families,  comprising  about  one-tenth 
of  all  flowering  plants,  — about  800  genera  and  11,000  to  12,000 
specie^.  Common  composites  are  sunflower,  aster,  goldenrod,  bone- 
set,  dahlia,  chrysanthemum,  marigold,  compass  plant, 
dandelion,  lettuce. 

A.  Head  with  all  flowers  strap-shaped  (with  rays)  and 
perfect:  juice  milky:  leaves  alternate. 
B.  Flower  heads  terminal   on  leafless,  hollow  stalk 

from  radical  leaves 1.   Tarazacnm 

BB.  Flower-heads    terminal   on   leafy  stalks:    leaves 

parallel-veined 2.   Tragopogoti 

BBB.  Flower-heads  in  corymbs  or  clusters. 

c.  Heads  never  yellow  (usually  blue  or  white): 

pappus  of  blunt  scales* 3.   Cichorium 

cc.  Heads  usually  yellow  (in  one  case  blue), 
u.  Akeues   beaked:    pappus    copious,    white, 
soft,  hair-like :  leaves  sometimes  bristly 

or  prickly  edged 4.  Lactuca 

DD.  Akenes  not  beaked. 

E.  Pappus  soft,  white:  leaves  usually  aur- 
icled   and    clasping    at    base,    and 

prickly  on  edges  and  under  ribs 5.  Sonchus 

EE.  Pappus  stiff,  brownish,  leaves  not  spiny.  6.  Hieracium 
AA.  Heads  with  tubular  and  mostly  perfect  disk  flowers, 
the  rays,  if  any,  formed  of  the  outer  strap-shaped 
and  imperfect  flowers:  in  cultivated  species,  all 
the  flowers  may  become  strap-shaped  (head 
"double  "):  juice  not  milky. 


COMPOSITE  401 

B.  Fruit  a  completely  closed  and  bur-like  involucre, 
containing  1  or  2  small  akenes:  flowers  im- 
perfect (see  also  No.  23). 

c.  Involucre-bur  large,  and  sharp-spiny 7.  Xantliium 

cc.  Involucre-bur  small,  not  sharp-spiny 8.  Ambrosia 

IB.  Fruit  not  formed  of  a  closed  and   hardened  in- 
volucre (although  the  involucre  may  be  spiny, 
as  in  Arctium  and  Cnicus). 
c.  Pappm  none:  akenes  not  awned. 
D.  The  leaves  opposite. 

E.  Leaves  simple:  ttovver-heads  small:  flow- 
ers blue  or  white 9.  Ageratum 

EE.  Leaves  compound:    flower-heads   large, 

various  colors,  mostly  of  ray  florets. 10.  Dahlia 

EEE.   Leaves  dissected:  heads  showy 11.  Cosmos 

EEEE.  Leaves   various:  rays  usually  about  8, 
neutral    and   yellow.    (See    Coreop- 
sis 21). 
DD.  The  leaves  alternate. 

E.  Foliage  finely  divided. 

F.  Heads   small   (about  K  in.):  akenes 

flattened 12.  Achillea 

PF.  Heads    good  -  sized    (about    1    in.): 

akenes  oblong,  angled  or  ribbed.  13.  Anthem  is 
BE.  Foliage  leaves  entire,  toothed,  or  broad- 
lobed. 
F.  Akenes  curved  or  horse-shoe-shaped. 14.   Calendula 
FF.  Akenes  straight. 

G.  Torus  flat  or  slightly  convex 15.   Chrysanthemun) 

GG.  Torus  conical. 

H.  Rays    yellow:     flowers    large: 

2-3  in ]G.  Rudbeckia 

HH.  Rays  not  yellow:  flowers  abo.t 

lin.  acriss:  plant  low 17.  Bellis 

CO.  Pappus  of  2  thin  early  deciduous  scales 18.  Helianthus 

ccc.  Pappus  a  short  crown,  or  akenes  awned  at  the 
top  with  2  (or  more)  awns, 
n.  Akenes  angled  or  ribbed,  crowned  with  cup- 
like or  loKed  pappus:   foliage  strongly 

"  tansy  "  scented 19.   Tanacefum 

DD.  Akenes  more  or  less  flattened,  and  awned 
at  summit,  with  usually  2  or  4  awns. 
E.  Awns  barbed  downward :  akenes  various, 
narrowed    at   top,    and    awned,  but 

not  really  beaked 20.  Bidens 

EE.  Teeth   not  downwardly  barbed:   (some- 
times akenes  awnless) 21.  Coreopsis 

Z 


402  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

cccc.   Pappus  of  luauy  bristles. 

D.   Plant  very  prickly 22.  Cnicus 

DD.  Plant  not  prickly. 

E.  Involucre  prickly  and  bur-like 23.  Arcthim 

EE.  Involucre  not  bur-like  or  prickly. 

F.  Torus  bristly  (chaff  or  bracts  amongst 

the  florets)  24,  Centaurea 

FF.  Torus  naked. 

G.  Rays  present. 
H.  Flowers  yellow. 

I.  Leaves    all    radical  :      rays 

numerous  and  fertile  ..25.   Tiissilago 
II.  Leaves  on  stems,  alternate. 
J.  Heads     small,    in    large 

clusters  or  panicles. 26.   Solidago 
jj.  Heads  large  and   broad: 
leaves  large  on  stem 
and  in  a  basal  clump. 27.  Inula 
HH.  Flowers  not  yellow. 

I.  Scales  of  the  involucre  un- 
equal   28.  Aster 

II.  Scales  equal  in  length 29.  £rigeron 

III.  Scales  in  several  rows,  more 

or  less  leafy 30.   CaUistephtts 

GG.  Rays  none. 

H.  Plants  cottony-white,  or  downy- 
looking. 
I.  Heads  mostly  dicecious. 
J.  Leaves  basal  and  also  on 
stem:  pappus  thick- 
ened at  sun)mit  and 
more  or  less  barbed 

or  plumed ..31.  Antennaria 

JJ.  Stems  leafy:  pappus  not 
thickened  at  summit : 
some  sterile  flowers, 
usually  in  center   of 

the  fertile  heads 32.  Anaphalis 

n.  Heads  not  dioecious:  outer 
flowers  pistillate,  central 

perfect 33.   Onaphalium 

HH.  Plants  not  cottony-white. 

I.  Flower -heads  showy,  spi- 
cate  or  racemed,  rose- 
purple:  leaves  alter- 
nate   34.  Liatris 


COMPOSIT.E  403 

II.  Flower  -  heads      small,      in 
cymes  or  corymbs, 
J.  Flowers    white    or    pale 
purple:     leaves 

mostly  opposite 35.  Hupatorium 

33.  Flowers    purple  :    leaves 

alternate 36.    Vernonia 

1.  TABAXACUM.   Dandelion. 

Stemless  herbs,  the  1-headed  scape  short,  leafless  and  hollow:  florets 
all  perfect  and  strap-shaped:  fruit  ribbed,  the  pappus  raised  on  a  long  beak. 

T.  officinale,  Weber  {T.  Dens-leonis,  Desf.).  Common  dandelion.  Figs. 
8,  275.  Perennial,  introduced  from  the  Old  World:  leaves  long,  pinnate  or 
lyrate:  heads  yellow,  opening  in  sun. 

2.  TKAGOPdGON.    Goat's  Beard. 

Biennials  or  perennials,  stout,  smooth,  often  glaucous,  with  long,  grass- 
like  leaves  clasping  the  stem:  flowers  all  ligulate,  in  large  solitary  heads, 
purple  or  yellow,  terminal  on  long  peduncle,  with  single  involucre  of  many 
bracts,  which  are  equal  and  lanceolate,  joined  at  bases:  pappus  in  one 
series,  long  and  plumose:  akenes  linear,  mostly  with  long  slender  beaks, 
5-  to  10-ribbed  or  angled:  flowers  open  in  early  morning,  usually  closed  at 
midday.    .Juice  milky. 

T.  porrifdliuB,  Linn.  Salsify.  Oyster  plant.  Biennial;  involucral  bracts 
much  longer  than  the  rays:  stems  2  to  3  ft.  high,  hollow  and  thickened  up- 
ward: flowers  purple.  Europe.  Cultivated  for  the  edible  tap-root.  Some- 
times wild. 

T.  prat^nsis,  Linn.  Similar  to  preceding,  but  flowers  yellow  and 
involucral  bracts  not  longer  than  rays.  Europe.  Fields  and  waste  places, 
Eastern  and  Middle  States. 

3.  CICHORIUM.   Chicory. 

Tall,  branching  perennials,  with  deep,  hard  roots:  florets  perfect  and 
strap-shaped:  fruit  lightly  grooved,  with  sessile  pappus  of  many  small, 
chaffy  scales. 

C.  tntybus,  Linn.  Common  chicory.  Runs  wild  along  roadsides  (from 
Europe):  2  to  3  ft.:  leaves  oblong  or  lanceolate,  the  lowest  pinnatifld: 
flowers  bright  blue  or  pink,  2  to  3  together  in  the  axils  on  long  nearly  naked 
branches. 

4.  LACTtCA.    Lettuce. 

Coarse  weedy  plants:  stems  tall  and  leafy,  simple  or  branching,  car- 
rying small  panicled  heads  of  insignificant  flowers:  juice  milky:  stem  leaves 
alternate,  entire,  or  pinnately  divided  with  lobes  and  margins  and  under 
midrib  often  spine-tipped:  involucre  cylindrical,  with  bracts  in  2  or  more 
unequal  rows;  flowers  all  lig\ilate  and  perfect,  with  the  ligules  truncate  and 
5-toothed :   akenes  oval  to  linear,  flattened,  3-  to  5-ribbed  on  each  face,  smooth, 


404  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

abruptly  narrowed  into  a  beak:  pappus  abundant,  white  or  brownish  and 
soft. 

L.  Canadensis,  Linn.  Common  in  rich  soil,  3  to  9  ft.  tall:  leaves  smooth, 
lanceolate  to  spatulate,  sessile  or  clasping,  margins  entire,  sinuate,  or 
runcinately  pinnatified,  the  radical  leaves  petiolate— all  smooth  and  glaucous; 
flowers  pale  yellow,  in  small  heads  (/4  to  K  in-  long),  the  heads  more  or 
less  diffusely  panicled.    Biennial  or  annual. 

L.  acuminata,  Gray.  Three  to  8  ft. :  leaves  ovate  to  lanceolate,  pointed 
and  serrate,  teeth  mucronate,  sometimes  hairy  on  under  midrib,  the  petioles 
winged,  more  or  less  sinuate  or  clasping  and  arrow-shaped:  inflorescence  a 
panicle  of  numerous  small  heads:  rays  bluish:  akenes  short-beaked  or 
beakless:  pappus  brownish.    Biennial  or  annual. 

L.  Scariola,  Linn.  Prickly  lettuce.  Glabrous  and  rather  glaucous-green, 
with  tall,  stiff,  erect  stem,  branching,  usually  somewhat  prickly:  leaves 
oblong  or  spatulate,  dentate  or  pinnatified,  sessile,  or  auricled  and  clasping, 
with  margins  and  under  midrib  spiny:  heads  small,  6  to  12-flowered,  but 
numerous,  the  rays  yellow:  involucre  narrow,  cylindric:  akenes  flat,  ovate- 
oblong,  with  long  filiform  beak.    Europe.    A  common  coarse  biennial  weed. 

L,  sativa,  Linn.  Garden  lettuce.  Cultivated  for  the  tender  root-leaves 
as  a  salad:  flowers  yellow  on  tall  small-leaved  stems. 

5.  S6NCHUS.    Sow  Thistle.   Milk  Thistle. 

Coarse,  succulent  weeds,  smooth  and  glaucous  or  spiny,  with  leafy  stem, 
resembling  wild  lettuce,  but  akenes  truncate,  not  beaked,  and  the  flowers 
always  yellow:  involucre  bell-shape  in  several  unequal  series:  rays  truncate, 
5-toothed.    All  from  Europe. 

S.  oleraceus,  Linn.  Annual,  from  fibrous  roots,  1-5  ft.,  with  pale  yellow 
flowers  in  heads  %-l  inch  in  diameter:  leaves  various,  mostly  on  lower  part 
of  stem,  petiolate  or  clasping  by  an  auricled  base,  the  lobes  acute:  in  shape 
lanceolate  to  lyrate-pinnatified,  margins  spinulous. 

S.  arv6nsi8,  Linn.  Perennial  with  creeping  rootstoeks:  flowers  bright 
yellow  in  showy  heads:  leaves  various,  but  spiny  on  nuirgins,  and  generally 
with  clasping,  auricled  bases:  bracts  of  the  involucre  bristly. 

8.  dsper,  Vill.  Spiny -leaved  sow  thistle.  Annual  weed:  resembles  S'. 
oleraceus  closely,  but  the  clasping  auricles  are  rounded  at  base,  stem  leaves 
not  so  divided  and  more  spiny. 

C.  HIERACIUM.    Hawkweed. 

Hairy,  or  glandular-hispid,  or  glabrous  perennials,  with  radical  or  alter- 
nate entire  leaves:  head  of  12-20  yellow  or  orange  ligulate  flowers,  solitary 
or  panicled:  involucre  in  one  or  several  series,  unequal:  rays  truncate  and 
5-toothed:  akenes  oblong,  striate,  not  beaked:  pappus  single  or  double,  deli- 
cate, tawny,  or  brownish,  stiff,  not  plumose.  Large  number  of  species  widely 
spread. 

H  vendsum,  Linn.  Rattlesnake-weed.  Smooth,  slender,  leafless  or  with 
1  or  few  leaves,  1-2  ft.,  forking  into  a  loose,  spreading  corymb  of  heads: 
leaves  thin,  glaucous,  radical  and  tufted,  or  near  base  on  stem,  oblong  or 


COMPOSITE 


405 


oval,   nearly   entire,    slightly   petioled   or   sessile,    sometimes   purplish    or 
marked  with  purple  veins:  akenes  linear,  not  nar- 
rowing upward.     Dry  woods. 

H.  aurantiacum,  Linn.  Oroiige  hawktveed.  A 
very  bad  weed  in  meadows  east,  from  Europe: 
hirsute  and  glandular:  leaves  narrow:  heads  deep 
orange:  akenes  oblong,  blunt. 

7.  XANTHIUM.     Clotbur. 

Coarse  homely  annual  weeds  with  large  alter- 
nate leaves,  flowers  monoecious :  in  small  involucres : 

sterile  involucres  composed  of  separate   scales,  in    ,„„  ^     ,,  .      ,,       , 

,  496.  Xanthium  Canadense. 

short  racemes:    fertile  involucres  of   united  scales 

forming  a  closed  body,  clustered  in  the  leaf  axils,  becoming  spiny  burs. 

X.  Canad6nse,  Mill.  Common  clotbur.  Fig.  496.  One  to  2  ft.,  branch- 
ing: leaves  broad-ovate,  petioled,  lobed  and  toothed:  burs  oblong-conical, 
1  in.  long,  with  2  beaks.     Waste  places. 

X.  spindsum,  Linn.  Spiny  clotbur.  Pubescent,  with 
three  spines  at  the  base  of  each  leaf:  bur  3^  in,  long, 
with  1  beak.     Tropical  America. 

8.  AMBROSIA.     Ragweed. 

Homely  strong-smelling  weeds,  monoecious:  sterile 
involucres  in  racemes  on  the  ends  of  the  branches,  the 
scales  united  into  a  cup:  fertile  involucres  clustered  in 
the  axils  of  leaves  or  bracts,  containing  1  pistil,  with 
4-8  horns  or  projections  near  the  top.  Following  are 
annuals: 

A.  artemisiaefdlia,  Linn.  Common  ragweed.  Fig. 
497.  One  to  3  ft.,  very  branchy:  leaves  opposite  or  al- 
ternate, thin,  once-  or  twice-pinnatifid  :  fruit  or  but 
globular,  with  6  spines.     Roadsides  and  waste  places. 

A.  trifida,  Linn.  Great  ragweed.  Three  to  12  ft., 
with  opposite  3-lobed  serrate  leaves:  fruit  or  bur  ob- 
ovate,  with  5  or  6  tubercles.     Swales. 

9.  AGERATTTM.     Ageratum. 

Small  diffuse  mostly  hairy  herbs,  with  opposite  simple  leaves:  heads 
small,  blue,  white  or  rose,  rayless,  the  involucre  cup-shaped  and  composed 
of  narrow  bracts :  torus  flattish :  pappus  of  a  few  rough  bristles. 

A.  conyzoides,  Linn.  {A  Mexicanum  of  gardens).  Annual  pubescent 
herb,  with  ovate-deltoid  serrate  leaves:  cultivated  (from  tropical  America) 
for  small  and  numerous  clustered  soft  heads. 

10.  DAHLIA. 

Stout  familiar  garden  herbs,  tall  and  branching,  from  tuberous  roots: 
leaves  opposite,  pinnately  divided:  ray  flowers  in  natural  state  are  neutral 
or  pistillate  and  fertile:  disk  flowers  perfect:  involucre  double,  outer  scales 


497.  Ambrosia  artem 
isisefolia. 


406  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

distinct  and  leaf -like,  the  inner  united  at  base:  receptacle  chaflfy:  pappus 
none.     In  the  big  cultivated  dahlias,  most  of  the  flowers  are  rays. 

D.  variflbilis,  Desf.  Fig.  232.  Several  feet,  with  fine  large  heads  of 
flowers,  colors  various:  heads  solitary:  leaves  pinnate,  leaflets  unequal, 
3-7,  ovate  acuminate,  coarsely  serrate.     Mexico. 

11.  C6SM0S. 

Handsome  tall  plants,  4-5  ft.  high,  cultivated  for  the  fine  foliage  and  late 
flowers:  leaves  opposite,  very  finely  dissected,  thrice-compound,  the  leaflets 
extremely  narrow,  and  sessile:  flower  head  with  double  involucre:  the  outer 
bracts  dark  green,  calyx-like,  8  in  number,  the  inner  scales  erect,  with 
recurved  tips:  ray  flowers,  usually  8,  neutral,  white,  pink:  disk  flowers  per- 
fect, tubular,  yellow:  receptacle  chafi'y:  akenes  flattened,  beaked.    Mexico. 

C.  bipinn^tus,  Cav.  Rays  1  2  in.  long,  crimson,  rose  or  white,  the  disk 
yellow.     The  commonest  species. 

C.  sulphureus,  Cav.     Both  rays  and  disk  yellow. 

12.  ACHILLEA.     Yarrow. 

Low  perennial  or  annual  herbs:  heads  corymbose,  many-flowered,  white 
or  rose,  with  fertile  rays :  scales  of  involucre  overlapping  ( imbricated) :  torus 
flattish,  chaflfy:  pappus  none. 

A.  Millefdlium,  Linn.  Farrow.  Stems  simple  below,  but  branching  at 
the  top  into  a  large  rather  dense  umbel-like  flower  cluster:  leaves  very  dark 
green,  twieepinnatified  into  very  fine  divisions :  rays  4-5.  Fields  everywhere. 

13.  ANTHEMIS.    Chamomile. 

Strong-scented,  branching  herbs  with  finely  pinnatified  leaves  and 
raany-flowered  heads,  solitary  on  peduncles:  ray  flowers  white  or  yellow, 
pistillate  or  neutral,  the  edge  of  corolla  entire  or  2-  to  3-toothed :  disk  flowers 
perfect,  fertile,  yellow,  corolla  5cleft:  receptacle  convex,  partially  chaflfy: 
involucral  bracts  small,  dry,  in  several  series,  outermost  shortest:  akenes 
round  or  ribbed,  smooth:  pappus  none  or  a  slight  border. 

A.  Cdtula,  DC.  May-weed.  Annual,  bushy,  erect,  1-2  ft.:  heads  ter- 
minal, corymbed,  1  in.  broad:  rays  usually  white,  neutral:  disk  flowers  yel- 
low: leaves  alternate,  mostly  sessile,  finely  pinnatified.    Roadsides.    Europe. 

14.  CALENDULA.     Pot  Marigold. 

Erect,  quick-growing  annuals,  with  terminal  large  yellow  or  orange  heads 
with  pistillate  rays:  involucre  of  many  short  green  scales:  torus  flat:  pap- 
pus none:  akenes  of  the  ray  florets  (those  of  the  disk  florets  do  not  mature) 
curved  or  coiled. 

C  officinalis,  Linn.  Common  pot  marigold.  A  common  garden  annual 
from  the  Old  World,  with  alternate  entire  sessile  oblong  leaves:  1-2  ft. 

15.  CHRYSANTHEMUM.    Chrysanthemum. 

Erect  herbs,  annual  or  perennial,  with  alternate  lobed  or  divided  leaves  i 
rays  numerous,  pistillate  and  ripening  seeds:  torus  usually  naked,  flat  or 
convex:  pappus  none, 


COMPOSITiE  407 

a.    Akenes  of  ray  florets  winged. 

C.  morildlium,  Ram.  (C.  Sinense,  Sabine).  Greenhouse  chrysanthemum. 
Tall  and  mostly  strict,  with  lobed,  firm  and  long-petioled  alternate  leaves: 
flowers  exceedingly  various.     China. 

aa.    Akenes  not  winged. 

C.  Leucdnthemum,  Linn.  Whiteweed.  Ox-eye  daisy.  Fig.  169.  Peren- 
nial, with  many  simple  stems  from  each  root,  rising  1-2  ft.,  and  bearing  al- 
ternate oblong  sessile  pinnatifid  leaves  :  heads  terminating  the 
stems,  with  long  white  rays  and  yellow  disks.  Fields  everywhere 
in  the  East,  and  spreading  West. 

16.  KUDBfiCKIA.     Cone  flower. 
Perennial  or  biennial  herbs,  with  alternate  leaves  and  showy 

yellow-rayed  terminal  heads:  ray  florets  neutral:  scales  of  in- 
volucre in  about  2  rows,  leafy  and  spreading  :  torus  long  or  coni- 
cal, with  a  bract  behind  each  floret:  akenes  3-angled,  with  no 
prominent  pappus. 

B.  hirta,  Linn.  Brown-eyed  Susan.  Ox-eye  daisy  in  the  East. 
Fig.  498.  Biennial,  1-2  ft.,  coarse-hairy,  leaves  oblong  or  oblanceo- 
late,  nearly  entire,  3-nerved  :  rays  as  long  as  the  involucre  or 
longer,  yellow,  the  disk  brown:  torus  conical.     Dry  fields. 

B.  lacini^ta,  Linn.     Two  to  7  ft.,  perennial,  smooth,  branch- 
ing: leaves  pinnate,  with  5-7-lobed  leaflets,  or  the  upper  ones  3-5.     493  jjy^. 
parted:  rays  1-2  in.  long:  torus  becoming  columnar.    Low  places,  beckiahirta. 

17.  BfiLLIS.   Garden  Daisy. 

Low  tufted  herbs  with  many-flowered  heads,  solitary  on  scapes:  leaves 
spatulate,  petioled:  flowers  both  radiate  and  tubular,  mostly  double,  with 
margins  of  the  rays  various,  quilled,  and  otherwise  modified  in  the  cul- 
tivated forms:  ray  flowers  white  or  pink,  pistillate:  disk  flowers  yellow, 
perfect  with  tubular  corolla,  limb  4-  to  5-toothed:  akenes  flattened,  wingless, 
nerved  near  margins. 

B.  per^nnis,  Linn.  English  daisy.  European  garden  daisy.  Fig.  185. 
Flower-head  on  a  scape  3  to  4  inches  high,  from  radical  leaves,  %  to  1  in.  in 
diameter  with  numerous  linear  rays,  white,  pink,  bluish.  Europe.  Perennial. 
Cultivated  in  gardens  or  on  lawns.    April  to  November. 

18.  HELIANTHUS.     Sunflower. 

Stout,  often  coarse  perennials  or  annuals,  with  simple  alternate  or 
opposite  leaves  and  large  yellow-rayed  heads:  ray  florets  neutral:  scales  of 
involucre  overlapping,  more  or  less  leafy:  torus  flat  or  convex,  with  a  bract 
embracing  each  floret:  akene  4-angle(l:  pappus  of  two  scales  (sometimes  2 
other  smaller  ones),  which  fall  as  soon  as  the  fruit  is  ripe. 

a.  Disk    broicn. 
H.  dnnuus,  Linn.     Common  sunflower.     Tall,  rough,  stout  annual,  with 
mostly   alternate    stalked  ovate-toothed   large  leaves:    scales   of  involucre 


408 


THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 


ovate-acuminate,  ciliate.     Minnesota  to  Texas  and  west,  but  everywhere  in 
gardens. 

H.  rigidus,  Desf.    Prairie  sunflower.     Stout  perennial  (2-6  ft.),  rough: 
leaves   oblong-lanceolate,  entire  or  serrate,  rough  and   grayish,  thick   and 
rigid:  heads  nearly  solitary,  with  20-25  rays.     Prairies,  Michigan,  west. 
aa.    Disk  yellow  {anthers  sometimes  dark). 

H.  ^gant^us,  Linn.  Tall,  to  10  ft.,  rough  or  hairy  :  leaves  mostly 
alternate,  lanceolate-pointed,  finely  serrate  or  quite  entire,  nearly  sessile  : 
scales  linear-lanceolate,  hairy:  rays  pale  yellow,  15-20.     Low  grounds. 

H.  divaricitus,  Linn.  Figs  3,  4,  23,  27.  Small  for  the  genus,  1-4  ft. : 
leaves  opposite,  ovate-lanceolate,  3-nerved,  sessile,  serrate,  rough  and 
thickish  :  rays  8-12,  1  in.  long.     Common  in  dry  thickets. 

H.  tuberdsus,  Linn.  Jerusalem  artichoke.  Bearing  edible  stem-tubers 
below  ground:  5-10  ft.:  leaves  ovate  to  oblong-ovate,  toothed,  long-petioled: 
scales  not  exceeding  the  disk:  rays  12-20,  large.    Penn.  west,  and  cultivated. 

19.  TANACfiTUM.    Tansy. 

/.■  Tufted    perennials,    with    finely 

divided  leaves  and  strong  odor:  in- 
volucre of   overlapping   dry  scales: 
torus    convex  :    heads  small,  nearly 
or  quite  rayless,  the  fiowers  all  seed- 
bearing:    akenes  angled    or  ribbed, 
bearing  a  short  crown-like  pappus. 
T.  vulgare,  Linn.    Common  tansy  from  Eu- 
rope, but  run  wild  about  old  houses:  2  to  4  ft.: 
leaves  1-  to  3-pinnately  cut:  heads  yellow,  pap- 
pus-crown 5-lobed. 

20.  BIDENS.    Bur-marigold.    Beggar's  Ticks. 

Pitchforks. 

Annual  or  perennial,  similar  to   Coreopsis, 

including  weeds  known  as  Spanish-needles  or 

stick -tights  :    leaves   opposite:    flowers  mostly 

yellow:  involucre  double,  outer  scales  large  and 

leaf -like:  heads  many-flowered:  ray  flowers  4  to 

8,  neutral,  or  none:  disk  flowers  perfect,  tubular: 

akenes  flattened  or  slender  and  4-angled,  crowned 

with  2  or  more  rigid  downwardly  barbed  awns. 

fronddsa,   Linn.     Fig.    499.      Smooth    or    sparsely 

hairy,  2  to  6  ft.  tall,  branching:  leaves  3-  to  5-divided,  or 

upper   simple:  leaflets  stalked,  lanceolate,  serrate:   outer 

involucre   longer  than   head  :    bracts    foliaceous  :    akenes 

wedge-ovate,  flat,  2-awned.    In  moist  places.    Annual. 

B.  chrysantbemoides,   Michx.     Smooth   branching   an- 
nual, 6  in.  to  2  ft.,  usually  abundant  along  ditches:  leaves 


COMPOSITE  409 

sessile,  simple,  lanceolate,  acuminate,  serrate,  the  bases  sometimes  united: 
outer  involueral  bracts  exceeding  the  inner,  but  shorter  than  the  yellow, 
oval  or  oblong  raj-s:  raj's  about  1  in.  long,  8  or  10  in  number:  akenes  small, 
wedge-shaped,  truncate,  prickly  on  margins,  with  2  rigid  downwardly 
barbed  awns. 

B.  bipinntlta,  Linn.  Annual:  stem  quadrangular,  erect,  branching 
freely:  leaves  1  to  3  times  pinnate,  leaflets  lanceolate,  pinnatified:  heads 
small  on  slender  peduncles:  rays  short,  pale  yellow,  3,  4  or  more:  akenes 
smooth,  3-4  grooved,  2-  or  6-awned  (awns  barbed). 

21.  COREOPSIS.    TicKSEED. 

Low  herbs  with  opposite,  sometimes  alternate  leaves:  heads  of  tubular 
and  ray  flowers  solitary,  or  corymbed  on  long  peduncles:  involucre  double, 
bracts  all  united  at  base,  the  8  outer  ones  usually  leafy:  the  inner  erect: 
receptacle  chaffy:  ray  flowers  neutral,  usually  yellow:  disk  flowers  tubular, 
perfect,  yellow  or  purple:  pappus  of  2  short  teeth  or  a  crown-like  border,  or 
none:  akenes  flat,  often  winged,  2-toothed  or  2-armed.  A  number  of  rather 
showy  but  somewhat  weedy  plants. 

C.  tinctdria,  Nutt.  Calliopsis.  Annual  or  biennial,  glabrous,  erect,  1-3 
ft.:  disk  flowers  dark  purple:  ray  flowers  about  8,  yellow  with  purple  bases, 
the  edges  coarsely  3-toothed:  leaves  alternate,  2  or  3  times  pinnately- 
divided:  the  lower  petioled,  the  upper  sessile  and  often  entire:  heads  1-1 K 
in.  wide,  on  slender  peduncles.  A  favorite  in  gardens.  Ray  flowers  variable 
in  shape  and  coloring. 

C.  tripteris,  Linn.  Tall  and  leafy  stems,  4-9  ft.:  disk  and  ray  flowers 
all  yellow:  heads  small,  numerous,  l-lj^  in.  broad,  corymbed,  giving  a  spicy 
odor  when  bruised.     Perennial.     Weed,  common. 

C.  lanceolita,  Linn.  Perennial,  native  and  cultivated:  nearly  or  quite 
glabrous:  leaves  oblong  or  linear,  mostly  entire,  obtuse:  heads  large,  yellow 
rayed,  on  very  long  stems. 

22.  CNlCUS.    Thistle. 

Perennial  or  biennial  herbs,  with  pinnatified,  very  prickly  leaves:  florets 
all  tubular  and  usually  all  perfect:  scales  of  the  involucre  prickly:  torus 
bristly:  pappus  of  soft  bristles,  by  means  of  which  the  fruit  is  carried  in  the 
wind.    Several  species  in  our  territory. 

C.  lanceol^tus,  Ilollm.  Common  thistle.  Figs.  228-230,  276.  Stror.g, 
branching  biennial  :  leaves  pinnatifid,  decurrent,  woolly  beneath  :  neads 
large,  purple,  with  all  the  involucre-scales  prickly.     Europe. 

C.  arv6nsi8,  Hoffm.    Canada  thistle.   Lower,  perennial  and  a  pestiferous 
weed:   leaves   smooth  or  nearly  so  beneath:    flowers  rose  purple,  in  small, 
imperfectly  dioecious  heads,  only  the  outer  scales  prickly.     Europe. 
"3.  ABCTIUH.     Burdock. 

Coarse  biennials  or  perennials,  strong-scented,  with  large  dock-liko 
■imple  leaves:  head  becoming  a  bur  with  hooked  bristles,  the  florets  all 
tubular  and  perfect:  torus  bristly:  pappus  of  short,  rough,  deciduous  bristles. 


410 


THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 


A.  L&ppa,  Linn.  Common  burdock.  Fig.  280.  Common  weed  from 
Europe,  with  a  deep,  hard  root  and  bushy  top  2-3  ft.  high;  leaves  broad- 
ovate,  somewhat  woolly  beneath,  entire  or  angled. 

24.  CENTAURfiA.     Star-thistle.     Centaurea. 

Alternate-leaved  herbs,  the  following  annuals,  with  single 
heads  terminating  the  long  branches:  heads  many-flowered, 
the  florets  all  tubular  but  the  outer  ones  usually  much  larger 
and  sterile:  scales  of  involucre  over-lapping:  torus  bristly: 
akenes  oblong,  with  bristly  or  chaffy  pappus.    Cultivated. 


500.  Centaurea  Cyanus.     At  the  left  is  an  outer  or  ray  floret;  then  follow  three 
details  of  a  disk  floret;  then  follows  the  fruit. 

C.  C^anus,  Linn.  Corn-flower.  Bachelor's  button.  Figs.  231,  500.  Gray 
herb:  leaves  linear  and  mostly  entire:  heads  blue,  rose  or  white.    Europe. 

C.  moshAta,  Linn.  Sweet  sultan.  One-2  ft.,  smooth:  leaves  pinnatified: 
pappus  sometimes  wanting:  heads  fragrant,  white,  rose  or  yellow,  large. 
Asia. 

25.  TUSSILAGO.     Coltsfoot. 

Low  stemless  hairy  perennials  from  rootstocks:  scapes  simple  in  early 
spring,  scaly-bracted,  each  bearing  a  single  dandelion-like  head:  leaves 
radical,  appearing  later,  orbicular-angled  or  toothed,  white-woolly  at  first: 
ray  flowers  in  several  rows,  pistillate,  fertile:  disk  flowers  tubular,  stani- 
inate,  sterile:  involucre  nearly  simple,  or  1-rowed  akenes  of  ray  flowers, 
cylindrical,  5-10-ribbed:  pappus  abundant,  soft,  hair-like,  white. 

T,  F&rfara,  Linn.  Yellow  heads  in  very  early  spring  before  the  leaves. 
A  common  weed  East,  found  in  low,  damp  places  and  along  cool  banks. 
Europe. 

26.  SOLIDAGO.    Goldenrod. 

Perennial  herbs,  with  narrow,  sessile  leaves:  heads  yellow,  rarely 
whitish,  few-flowered,  usually  numerous  in  the  cluster,  the  ray-florets  1-16 


COMPOSITE 


411 


and  pistillate:  scales  of  involucre  close,  usually  not  green  and  leaf -like: 
torus  not  chaffy:  akene  nearly  cylindrical,  ribbed,  with  pappus  of  many  soft 
bristles.  Of  goldenrods  there  are  many  species.  They  are  characteristic 
plants  of  the  American  autumn.     They  are  too  critical  for  the  beginner. 

27.  Inula,   elecampane. 

Large  and  tall  coarse  perennial  herbs,  with  large,  showy  yellow  flower- 
heads  2-4  in.  diameter,  sunflower-like:  leaves  large,  simple,  alternate, 
and  also  radical  in  clumps:  heads  contain  both  perfect  tubular,  and  pistil- 
late ray  florets,  in  one  row:  receptacle  not  chaffy:  akenes  4-5-ribbed : 
pappus  in  one  row,  bristles  hair-like. 

I.  Hel6nium,  Linn.  Four  to  6  ft.,  rising  from  a  clump  of  large,  ovate, 
dock-like  leaves  on  heavy  petioles:  stem  leaves  sessile  or  clasping;  heads 
solitary,  terminal:  involucre  bracts  ovate,  leaf -like,  woolly.  Weed  in  damp 
pasture  and  along  roadside.     Summer. 

28.  Aster,  aster.   Fig.  227. 

Perennial  herbs,  with  narrow  or  broad  leaves:  heads  with  several  to 
many  white,  blue  or  purple  rays  in  a  single  series,  the  ray  florets  fertile: 
scales  of  involucre  overlapping,  usually  more  or  less  green  and  leafy:  torus 
flat:  akenes  flattened,  bearing  soft,  bristly  pappus.  Asters  are  conspicuous 
plants  in  the  autumn  flora  of  the  country.  The  kinds  are  numerous,  and  it' 
is  difficult  to  draw  specific  lines.     The  beginner  will  find  them  too  critical. 

29.  ERlGERON.     Fleabank. 

Annual,  biennial  or  perennial  erect  herbs,  with  simple,  sessile  leaves: 
heads  few-  to  many -flowered :  rays  numerous  in  several  rows  and  pistillate: 
scales  of  involucre  narrow  and  equal,  scarcely  overlapping,  not  green-tipped: 
torus  flat  or  convex,  naked:  pappus  of  soft  bristles. 
a.  Rays  very  inconspicuous. 
E.  Canadensis,  Linn.    Horse-weed.    Mare's-tail.    Fig.  501. 
Tall,  erect,   weedy,  hairy  annual,  with  strong  scent  :    leaves 
linear  and  mostly  entire  or  the  root-leaves  lobed:  heads  small 
and  very  numerous  in  a  long  panicle,   the  rays  very   short, 
aa.    Rays  prominent :    common  fleabanes. 
E.  dnnuus,  Pers.     Usually  annual,  3-5  ft.,  with  spreading 
hairs:  leaves  coarsely  and   sharply   toothed,  the  lowest  ovate 
and  tapering  into  a  margined  petiole:  rays  numerous,  white  or 
tinged  with  purple,  not  twice  the  length  of  the  involucre. 

E.  strigosus,  Muhl.  Usually  annual,  with  appressed  hairs 
or  none:  leaves  usually  entire  and  narrower:  rays  white  and 
numerous,  twice  the  length  of  the  involucre. 

E.  bellidifdlius,  Muhl.    Robin's  plantain.    Perennial  leafy- 
stemmed    herb,    softly   hairy,    producing   stolons    or    rooting 
601.   Erigeron    ^•'■'"''^fis    from  the  base,  the    simple    stems,    from   a  cluster 
Canadensis,     o^  ratlier  large,  roundish,  short-petioled,  serrate,  root  leaves: 


412  THE     KINDS     OF     PLANTS 

stem  leaves  few,  entire,  sessile  and  partially  clasping:  heads  1-7.  on  long 
peduncles:  rays  numerous,  linear  or  spatulate,  purplish  or  pinkish:  April 
to  June. 

30.  CALLtSTEPHUS.     China  Aster. 

Erect,  leafy  annuals,  with  large  solitary  heads  bearing  numerous  white, 
rose  or  purple  i-ays:  scales  in  several  rows  or  series,  usually  leafy:  torus 
flat  or  nearly  so,  naked:   pappus  of  long  and  very  short  bristles. 

C.  hort^nsis,  Cass.  Common  China  aster,  now  one  of  the  commonest  of 
garden  annuals,  in  many  forms:  leaves  sessile  and  coarsely  toothed.    China. 

31.  ANTENNARIA.    Everlasting. 

Perennial  little  herbs  with  cottony  leaves  and  stems:  flowers  dioecious, 
in  many-flowered  small  heads,  solitary  or  racemose  or  clustered  (much 
resembling  Gnaphalium,  but  distinguished  by  the  dioecious  heads) :  invo- 
lucre with  dry  imbricated  bracts  in  several  rows,  usually  woolly-white  or 
colored:  pappus  in  a  single  row,  that  of  the  sterile  flowers  thickened  and 
plumed  at  summit.    Several  confused  species,  or  forms  of  one  species. 

A.  plantaginifolia.  Hook.  Mouse-ear  everlasting .  Noticeable  on  dry 
soil  and  in  open  places,  as  white  cottony  patches:  stoloniferous  root-leaves 
soft-white  when  young,  later  green  above  but  hoary  beneath,  oval  to  spatu- 
late, petioled,  3-veined:  flowering  stem  simple  scape-like,  4  to  8  in.  high, 
bears  small,  bract-like,  appressed  leaves,  and  heads  in  a  small,  crowded, 
terminal  corymb:   scales  of  involucre  whitish. 

32.  ANAPHALIS.   Everlasting. 

Cottony-white  herbs,  very  similar  to  the  preceding,  but  pappus  not 
thickened  at  summit,  and  usually  a  few  perfect  but  sterile  flowers  in  center 
of  the  head:   stem  leafy.     Perennial. 

A.  margaritacea,  Benth  &  Hook.  Peart]!  everlasting.  One  to  2  ft.: 
heads  in  corymbs  at  summit,  dioecious,  but  a  few  imperfect  staminate 
flowers  in  the  center  of  the  fertile  heads:  leaves  sessile,  taper-pointed, 
broad  ovate  to  linear  lanceolate:  involucre  scale,  pearly  white,  rounded. 
Common  in  dry  soil. 

33.  GNAPHALIUM.    Everlasting.    Cudweed. 

Cottony-white  herbs,  with  small  head  of  many  whitish  flowers,  sur- 
rounded by  involucre  of  white  or  colored  scales,  in  many  series:  flowers  all 
fertile,  outer  pistillate,  central  perfect:  no  chaff  on  receptacle:  pappus  a 
row  of  slender  bristles.    Common  in  dry  fields. 

G.  polyc6phalum,  Michx.  Annual,  with  leaves  lanceolate,  margins  wavy, 
upper  surface  not  very  Cottony:  scales  of  involucre  white  or  yellowish- 
white,  a  few  perfect  flowers  in  the  center  of  each  head. 

G.  deciirrens.  Ives.  Biennial  or  annual,  with  many  perfect  flowers  in 
center  of  each  head:  stem  erect,  1  to  2  ft.:  leaves  lance-linear,  both  side* 
cottony,  bases  partially  clasping  and  running  down  the  stem. 


COMPOSITE  413 

34.  LIATRIS.     Blazing  Star.     Button  Snakeroot. 

Perennial  herbs,  with  simple  erect  stems  from  tuberous  or  corm-like 
roots:  leaves  entire,  alternate,  rather  rigid,  sometimes  vertical  on  the  stem, 
tmd  resinous-dotted:  flowers  few  to  many,  in  raceraed  or  spicate  heads: 
flowers  all  alike,  rose-purple,  tubular:  corolla  5-lobed,  lobes  long  and 
.slender:  pappus  of  nianj'  hair-like  bristles,  plumose  or  barbed:  akene 
slender,  tapering  to  base:   involucral  bracts  in  several  rows,  unequal. 

L.  scaridsa,  Willd.  Stem  stout,  2-5  ft.  tall:  leaves  lanceolate,  the  lower 
long-petioled,  the  upper  more  linear  and  rigid:  heads  few  to  man\-,  30-40 
flowered,  about  1  in.  broad:  scales  of  involucre  numerous,  with  rounded 
tips,  often  colored  and  rather  rough  on  the  margins:  flowers  bright  purple. 
Dry  soil. 

L.  pycnostHchya,  Michx.  Heads  3-15-fio\vered:  flowers  rosy-purple  on  a 
spike  3-4  ft.  high:  flowers  begin  to  open  at  top  of  the  spike  and  continue 
opening  downward:  scales  with  purplish  tips.  A  western  species,  cultivated; 
very  showy. 

35.  EUPATORIUM.     Boneset. 

Erect  perennials,  with  simple  leaves:  heads  small  and  rayless,  clustered, 
all  the  florets  perfect:  scales  not  leafy;  torus  flat  or  low-conical,  naked: 
ukene  5-angled:  pappus  a  single  row  of  soft  bristles.    Low  grounds. 

E.  purpiireum,  Linn.  Joe  Pye  weed.  Tall,  with  purplish  stem  and  lan- 
ceolate-toothed leaves  in  whorls  of  3-G:  heads  flesh -colored,  in  dense 
corymbs,    Swamps,  growing  3-10  ft. 

E.  perfoliatum,  Linn.  Boneset.  Thorough  wort.  Fig.  159.  Two  to  4  ft., 
hairy:  leaves  opposite  and  sessile,  lanceolate:  flowers  white,  in  clusters. 

30.  VERNONIA.    Ironweed. 

Coarse  perennial  herbs,  with  tall  strong  leafy  stems:  leaves  alternate 
(seldom  opposite),  sessile:  flowers  15  to  many  in  a  head,  heads  eorymbed, 
all  tubular,  perfect,  purple  (rarely  white  or  pink):  involucre  shorter  than 
flowers,  with  several  series  of  scales:  receptacle  not  chaffy:  pappus  double, 
the  inner  series  bristle-like,  the  outer  of  short,  small,  scale-like  bristles: 
akenes  cj'lindrical,  several-ribbed. 

V.  Novaborac6nsis,  Willd.  A  coarse  weed,  3  to  G  ft.:  heads  about  K  in. 
long:  bracts  of  involucre,  some  or  all,  with  slender  long  or  awned  flexuous 
points,  brownish-purple:  leaves  many,  rough,  lanceolate  or  lance-obloTig, 
2  to  9  in.  long,  serrulate,  sessile,  all  along  stem:  flowers  deep  purple  in 
spreading,  flat-topped  cymes:    akenes  somewhat  hairy.    Late  summer. 

V.  fasciculElta,  Michx.  Tall,  coarse  weed,  3  to  10  feet,  with  deep  purple 
flowers  in  heads  (20  to  30  flowered),  eorymbed:  involucre  campanulate, 
scales  usually  obtuse,  not  awn-like.    Summer  and  autumn. 


j'~.i 


I 


INDEX  AND   GLOSSARY 

Numbers  in  parenthesis  refer  to  paragraphs 


Aborted:  crowded  out,  (291). 

Abronia,   Fig.   19. 

Absorption  by  roots,  70. 

Abutilon  striatum.  Fig.  461;  Thorn psoni, 
341;  avicenna?,  341. 

Acacia,  104,  105,  Fig.  151. 

Accessory  buds:  more  than  one  in  an 
axil,  (87). 

Accessory  fruit:  other  parts  grown  to 
the  pericarp,  (286),  153. 

Acer,  344,  Figs.  464-7. 

Acetic  acid,  246. 

Achillea  millefolium,  406. 

Acids,  246. 

Acclimatization:  adaptation  to  a  cli- 
mate at  first  injurious,  (339). 

Acorn,  147. 

Acorus,  296. 

Aetata,  327. 

Acuminate:  taper-pointed,  (199). 

Acute:  sharp-poi'ited,  (199). 

Adder's-tongue,  298;  fern,  191,  Fig.  341. 

Adiantum  pedatum,  291,  Fig.  309. 

Adventitious  buds:  those  appearing  on 
occasion,  (54,  123). 

jEcidia,    185.    .^cidiospore,    185. 

Aerial  roots,  10. 

.feculus,  346. 

Ageratum  conyzoides,  405. 

Aggregate  fruit:  one  formed  by  the  co- 
herence of  pistils  which  were  distinct 
in  the  flower,  (296). 

Agrimonia,  355. 

Agrimony,    162,   355. 

Ailanthus  buds.  Fig.  53;  fruits,  160. 

Air-plants,  12,  88. 

Akene:  dry,  indehiscent  1-seeded  peri- 
carp, (288). 

Alcanin,  241. 

Alcohol,  241. 

Alder,  black,  313;  smooth,  313;  specklsd 
313. 

Aleurone  grains,  249. 

Alfalfa,  352,  Fig.  470. 

Algae,  176,  178,  235. 

Alkaloids,  246. 

Almond  bud,  39,  Fig.  64. 

Alnus  glutinosa,  313;  incana,  313;  ru- 
gosa,  313. 

Alpine  plants,  220. 

Alsike  clover,  351. 


Alternation  of  generations,  174.  194. 

Althffia  rosea,  340,  Figs.  206,  207,  235. 

Alyssum  maritimum,  152,  336,  Fig.  460. 

Amaranthus,  163. 

Amaryllidacea?,  303. 

Ambrosia,  405,  Fig.  497 

Amelanchier,  359. 

Amceboid,  235. 

Ampelopsis,  leaves  of,  95,  Fig.  142. 

Amphibious,  199. 

Amylo-dextrine,  249. 

Anacharis.  experiment  with,  78,  235. 

Analogy,  related  in  function  or  use, 
(211). 

Anaphalis,  412. 

Anaphase,  240. 

Anemone,  324;  fruit,  148. 

Anemonella,  324. 

Anemophilous:  pollinated  by  wind, 
(267). 

Angelica,  367. 

Annual:  of  one  season's  duration,  (10). 

Angiosperms,  294. 

Antennaria,  412. 

Anther:  pollen-bearing  part  of  the  sta- 
men, (254). 

Anthemus,  406. 

Antheridia,  174,  180.  .\ntheridiophore, 
187. 

Anthodium:  flower-head  of  the  Com- 
posita>,  116. 

Antirrhinum  majus,  374,  Fig.  220. 

Antitropic:  against  the  sun,   (231"). 

Apetalous:  petals  missing,  (257). 

Aphyllon,  85,  Fig.  118. 

Apical:  at  the  apex  or  top,  (292). 

Apios,  353. 

Apocynaceae,  386. 

Apparatus,  240. 

Apple,  359,  Figs.  267,  268;  acid,  246;  an- 
ther, 129;  bud,  36,  40,  Fig.  67;  bud- 
variation,  229;  cells,  233,  234;  fruit, 
155,  Fig.  268;  infloresence,  118,  Fig. 
267;  leaf -scar,  37;  -pear  graft,  28; 
phyllotaxy,  48,  49;  thorns,  104;  tree, 
15,  Fig.  18. 

Apricot  bud,  37,  39,  356,  Figs.  51,  65, 
477. 

Aquatic,  198. 

Aquilegia,  326,  Fig.  458. 

Arabis,  334. 


(415) 


416 


INDEX     AND     GLOSSARY 


Araceae,  294. 

Arbor-vitae,  294,  Fig.  426. 
Arbutus,  trailing,  393. 
Archegoniophore,     187.      Archegonium, 

174. 
Arctium  Lappa,  410,  Fig.  280. 
Arisffima,  295,  Fig.  226. 
Aristolochiaceae,  316. 
Arrow-root,  starch,  249. 
Arrowwood,  397. 
Artichoke,  Jerusalem,  408. 
Arums,  141. 
Asarum,  316. 
Ascending,  15. 
Asclepiadaceae,  386. 
Ash,  389,  390;  branching,  54;  fruit,  148, 

159;   leaf.   Fig.   127;   mountain,  360; 

phyllotaxy,  49. 
Ash  in  plants,  72. 
Asparagus,  3,  103,  259,  301,  Fig.'^.  147- 

150,  434. 
Aspen  (poplar),  expression,  61. 
Aspidium,  172,  Figs.  304,  305. 
Asplenium  Filix-fcemina,  291. 
Assimilation:     making    of    protoplasm, 

(170,  171). 
Aster,  411;  China,  412;  flowers,  142,  Fig. 

227;  society,  225;  (in  cell),  239. 
Atropin,  246. 

Attachment  of  flowers,  144. 
Autumn  leaves,  225,  271. 
Avens,  355. 
Axil:    upper  angle   which   a   petiole   or 

peduncle  makes  with  the  stem  which 

bears  it,  (86). 
Azalea,  393;  anther,  129,  Fig.  204. 
Bachelor's  button,  143,  410,  Figs.  231, 

500. 
Bacterium  (pi.  bacteria),  87,  Fig.  123. 
Ballast  plants,  163. 
Balloon-vine,  344. 
Balsam,  158,  241,343. 
Baneberry,  327. 
Banyan,  12,  21,  Figs.  15,  16. 
Baptisia,  351. 
Barbarea  vulgaris,  334. 
Barberry,  328;   anther,   129,   Fig.  205; 

inflorescence.     Fig.     173;     riist,     184; 

spines,  105,  Fig.  156. 
Bark,  265;  form  of,  60. 
Basal:  at  the  base  or  bottom,  (292). 
Basidium,  184. 
Bass  wood,  37,  49,  264. 
Bast,  254,  255. 
Bean,  common,  3,  204,  352,  Figs.  471, 

472;  flowers,   138;  germination,   164, 

167,    171,    Figs.    282,    283,    285,    286; 

legume,    151;    Lima,    pod.    Fig.    247; 

sleep  of,  50;  twiner,  111.  112. 


Beard-tongue,  375. 

Bedstraw,  395. 

Bee  palm,  369. 

Beech,  310;  drop,  85;  fruit,  147;  leaf. 
Fig.  138;  monoecious,  133. 

Beet,  7;  starch  in,  31;  sugar,  246. 

Begonia,  hairs,  234;  leaf,  Fig.  130;  cut- 
tings, 22;  root-pressure,  73;  stomates, 
273. 

Beggar's  Ticks,  408,  Fig.  499. 

Bell-flower,  399. 

Bellwort,  300. 

Berberidaeeae,  328. 

Berry:  pulpy  indehiseent  few-  or  many- 
seeded  fruit,  (294). 

Betula,  312. 

Bi-compound,  91. 

Bidens,  408,  Fig.  499. 

Biennial:  of  two  seasons'  duration,  (10). 

Bilberry,  392. 

Bindweed,  380. 

Birch,  312,  313,  Fig.  6. 

Birth,  variation  after,  229. 

Birthroot,  300,  Fig.  221. 

Bitter-cress,  335. 

Bittersweet,  378;  climbing,  108;  twiner, 
111. 

Blacl  >erry,  20,  358;  cuttings,  24;  fruit 
153;  and  birds,  161. 

Black  haw,  397,  Fig.  279. 

Blade:   expanded  part  of  leaf  or  petal. 

Bladder-nut,  346. 
(194). 

Bleeding  heart,  3,  332. 

Bloodroot,  3:30. 

Blueberry,  392,  393. 

Blue  flag,  297,  Fig.  437. 

Bluets,  395. 

Bog  plants,  199,  219. 

Boneset,  413,  Fig.  159;  bracts,  106,  Fig. 
159. 

Boreal  plants,  220. 

Borraginacese,  380. 

Boston  ivy  leaves,  95,  Fig.  142;  tendril 
109. 

Bougainvillea,  106,  Fig,  161. 

Bouncing  Bet,  321,  fruit.  Fig.  250. 

Box,  leaf  of.  Fig.  137. 

Box-elder,  345;  phyllotaxy,  46,  49. 

Brace  roots,  9,  12. 

Bracts:  much  reduced  leaves,  (219). 

Brake,  173,  237,  290,  291,  Figs.  125,  308. 
310. 

Bramble,  358. 

Brassica,  333. 

Briars,  climbing,  108;  prickles,  105.' 

Bridal  wreath,  361,  Fig.  179. 

Bristles,  105;  nature  of,  254. 

Brown-eyed  Susan,  407,  Fig.  498. 


INDEX     AND     GLOSSARY 


417 


Brunella  vulgaris,  370. 

Bryophyllum,  leaf  cuttings,  22. 

Bryophyte,  176. 

Buckeye,  346. 

Buckwheat,  318,  Fig.  454;  flower,  125, 

136;family,  317;  fruit,  148. 
Bud,  winter,  36;  and  light,  51;  and  seed.s, 

161;  dormant,  54;  propagation,  by  22; 

struggle  for,  52;  -scales,  36,  107;  -scars, 

old,  54,  Fig.  86. 
Bud-variations,  229. 
Bulb:  thickened  part,  made  up  of  scales 

or  plates,  (79),  37,  49. 
Bulbel:  bulb  arising  from  a  mother  bulb, 

(80). 
Bulblet:  aerial  bulb,  22,  (80). 
Bulb  scales,  107. 
Bundles,  257. 

Burdock,  7,  62,  162,  410,  Fig.  280. 
Burning  hush,  266. 
Bur-marigold,  408,  Fig.  499 
Bur-seed,  382. 
Burs,  161. 

Burst  of  spring,  40,  204. 
Butter-and-eggs,    132,    137,    374,    Figs. 

255,  485. 
Buttercup,  1,  325,  Figs.  2,  187,  188,  191, 

242;  akene,  148,  Figs.  191,  242;  flower, 

Figs.  187,  188;  pistil,  Fig.  191;  society, 

225. 
Butterfly  weed,  386. 
Butternut  Buds,  37. 
Button-bush,  395. 
Buttresses,  9. 
Cabbage,  13,  17;  fruit,  152;  head,  38, 

Fig.  55;  skunk,  295;  water  pores,  271. 
Cacti,  Fig.  344. 
Caffein,  246. 
Calamus,  296. 

Calcium,  72;  oxalate,  246,  249,  250. 
Calendula  officinalis,  406. 
Calla,  296,  Figs.  427,  428;  inflorescence, 

142;  lily,  296,  Fig.  427. 
Calliopsis,  409. 
Callistephus  hortensis,  340. 
Callus,  27. 
Caltha  palustris,  326. 
Calypogon,  309. 
Calyptra,  190. 
Calyx:  outer  circle  of  floral  envelopes, 

(250). 
Cambium:  the  growing  or  nascent  tissue 

lying  between  the  xylem  and  phloem 

of  the  fibro-vascular  bundle  (418),  and 

therefore  on  the  outside  of  the  woody 

trunk,  since  the  active  fibro-vascular 

bundles  are  in  the  young  outer  tissues 

(71);   257,  262,   264. 
Campanula,  399;  capsule,  Fig.  256. 

AA 


CampanulaceiE,  398. 

Campion,  322. 

Canada  balsam,  241. 

Canada  thistle,  20,  23,  409. 

Candytuft,  336,  Fig.  178. 

Cane  sugar,  245-247. 

Cannabis  sativa,  316. 

Canna,  19,  Fig.  28. 

Canoe  birch,  313. 

Caoutchouc,  246. 

Caprifoliaceae,  396. 

Capsella  Bursa-pastoris,  336,  Fig.  259. 

Capsicum  annuum,  378,  Fig.  488. 

Capsule:  compound  pod,  (291). 

Caraway,  368. 

Carbohydrate,  77. 

Carbon,  72,  74;  dioxid,  74,  76. 

Cardamine,  335. 

Cardinal  flower,  399. 

Cardiospermum,  344. 

Carnation,  321;  cutting.  Fig.  33. 

Carpel:  a  simple  pistil;  one  of  the  units 

of  a  compound  pistil,  (255). 
Carrot,  3,  367,  Fig.  180;  umbel,  117,  118. 
Carum  Carui,  368;  Petroselinum,  368. 
Carophyllaceff,  320. 
Cassia,  353;  flower,  138,  Fig.  223. 
Castanea    Americana,    311,     Fig.    241; 

sativa,  311. 
Castilleia,  375. 
Castor  bean,  320;  germination,  167,  Figs 

287-290. 
Castor-oil,  247;  inclusions,  249. 
Catalpa  seeds,   159,  Fig.  274. 
Catchfly,  322. 
Catkin:    scaly-bracted   deciduous    spike 

with  declinous  flowers,  (239). 
Catmint,  371. 
Catnip,  126,  371,  Fig.  197. 
Cat-tail,  3;  seeds,  161,  Fig.  278;  stems, 

259;  swamp,  224,  Fig.  378. 
Caulicle;  stemlet  of  the  embryo,  (305). 
Cedar,  161;  and  light.  Fig.  71;  fruit,  156. 
Celandine,  235,  331. 
Celastrus,  twiner,  112,  Fig.  167. 
Celery,  368;  stem,  234. 
Cell,  233;  budding,  238;  multiplication, 

237;  sap,  245;  wall,  233,  234,  236. 
Cellulose,  236. 
Celtis  occidentalis,  315. 
Centaurea  Cyanus,  410,  Fig.  500;  mos- 

chata,  410. 
Centrosphere,  2:i9. 
Cephalanthus,  395. 
Cerastium    viscosum,    323;    vulgatura, 

323. 
Cercis,  349. 
Chamomile,  406. 
Chara,  235. 


418 


INDEX     AND     GLOSSARY 


Charcoal,  74. 

Charlock,  333.  336. 

Oheledonium,  331. 

Chelone,  37   . 

Cherries  and  birds,  161. 

Cherry,  20,  356,  357,  Fig.  479;  fruit,  153; 

inflorescence.    118;   phyllotaxy,  49. 
Chestnut,  311,  Fig.  241;  fruit,  147.  Fig. 

241;  monoecious,  133;  -oak  graft,  28. 
Chicory,  403. 
Chickasaw  plum,  357. 
Chickweed,  323,  Fig.  457. 
Chinese  sacred  lily,  304,  Fig.  435. 
Chionanthus,  389. 
Chlorine,   72. 
Chlorophyll,  75,  245. 
Choke  cherry,  357. 
Choripetalae,  310. 

Chromatin,  239.  Chromosome,  239. 
Chrysanthemum,  142,  145,  406,  Fig.  169. 
Cichorium  Intybus,  403. 
Cider  acid,  246. 
Cilia,  235. 
Cinquefoil,  354. 
Cion:  the  bud  or  branch  used  in  grafting, 

(69). 
CircasB,  366. 
Citric  acid,  246. 

Cladophyllum:  leaf -like  branch,  (213). 
Claytonia,  339. 
Clearer,  241. 

Cleft,  92.     Cleft-graft,  28. 
Cleistogamous  flowers:  small  closed  self- 

fertilized  flowers,  (269). 
Clematis,  327,  Fig.  360;  and  light,  Fig. 

73;  tendril.  111,  Fig.  166. 
Climate  and  plants,  203. 
Climbing,  15;  nasturtium,  314,  P'ig.  195; 

plants,  108;  plants  and  light,  43. 
Close    fertilization:    secured    by    pollen 

from    same    flower;    self-fertilization, 

(260). 
Clotbur,  common,  405,  Fig.  496;  spiny, 

336. 
Clover,  7,  350,  351;  Bokhara,  351,  Figs. 

468,  469;  chlorophyll,  75;  inflorescence 

116;  .sleep  of,  50,  Fig.  82. 
Cnicus,  409,  Figs.  228-230,  276. 
Cockle,  321. 
Coffee,  246;  tree,  96. 
Cohosh  anther,  129. 
Coleus,  chlorophyll,  76;  cuttings,  24,  26; 

in  window,   163;  root-pressure,  73. 
Collateral.  261 . 
Collection,  making  a.  279. 
CoUenchyma.  254. 
Collodion.  241.243. 
Colonies,  221. 
Color  of  foliage,  225. 


Coltsfoot.  410. 

Columbine.  326.  Fig.  458;  fruit.  151. 

Columella.   181. 

Column:  body  formed  of  union  of  sta- 
mens and  pistil  in  orchids,  (279). 

CoUinsia,  375. 

Commelinacese.  302. 

Companion  cells,  254. 

Compass  plant,  50,  269. 

Complete  flower:  all  parts  present,  (257) . 

Complete  leaf:  having  blade,  petiole, 
stipules,   (194),  Fig.  131. 

Compositae,  400. 

Compositous  flowers,  142. 

Compound  leaves,  91. 

Compound  pistil:  of  more  than  one  car- 
pel united,  (255). 

Concentric,  261. 

Cone-flower,  407. 

Cones,  156,  Figs.  271.  272. 

Conifer  cells.  237. 

Conifers;.  292. 

Conjugation.  179. 

Connate.  93.  Fig.  134. 

Convallaria  majalis,  301. 

Convolvulaceffi,  379. 

Convolvulus,  380. 

Copper  sulfate,  241. 

Coral  root,  85,  Fig.  119. 

Coreopsis,  409. 

Cork  elm,  315.  Fig.  450. 

Corm:  a  solid  bulb-like  part.  (81). 

Cormel:  a  corm  arising  from  a  mother 
corm,  (81). 

Corn,  ash  in,  72;  cells,  237;  field,  213, 
217,  Fig.  358;  germination,  168,  Figs. 
291-295;  monoecious,  133,  Fig.  214; 
North  and  South,  203,  phyllotaxy,  49; 
root  cap,  253,  Fig.  395;  roots  of,  8,  12, 
Fig.  14;  water  in,  72;  wilting,  83;  roots 
267;  stalk,  18;  starch,  248,  249; 
stems,  259;  suffocated,  70;  sugar,  246. 

Corn  cockle,  322. 

Cornflower.  410;  flowers.  143.  Figs.  231. 
500. 

Corolla:  inner  circle  of  floral  envelopes. 
(250). 

Corte.x.  260. 

Corydalis.  332. 

Corymb:  short  and  broad  more  or  less 
flat-topped,  indeterminate  cluster, 
(241). 

Corymbose  inflorescence:  outer  flowers 
opening  first;  indeterminate,  (236). 

Cosmos,  406. 

Cotton,  146;  fibers,  233. 

Cotyledon:  seed-leaf,  (305). 

Cowslip,  326,  390. 

Cowpea.  353.  Fig.  473. 


INDEX     AND     GLOSSARY 


419 


Crab  apple,  359,  360. 

Cranberry,  393;  high-bush,  398. 

Cranesbill,  wild,  342.  Fig.  181. 

Crataegus,  360. 

Creeper:    a    trailing   shoot   which   takes 

root  throughout  its  length,  (56),  15. 
Crenate:  shaliowly  round-toothed,  (200). 
Cress  fruit,  152;  winter,  311. 
Crocus,  34,  35,  306;  Figs.  48,  49,  438. 
Cromwell,  383. 
Cross-fertilization:     secured    by    pollen 

from  another  flower,  (260). 
Cross-pollination:     transfer     of     pollen 

from  flower  to  flower,  (263). 
Crowfoot,   325,   Figs.  2,   187,   188,    191, 

242; 
Crown:    that  part  of    the   stem   at    the 

surface   of   the  ground,    (37);    tuber, 

33. 
Crucifera;,  333;  hairs,  270. 
Cryptogam:    flowerless    plant,    as    fern, 

moss,  fungus,  178,  284,  (325). 
Crystals,  250.  Crystaloids,  249. 
Cucumber  collenchyma,  254;  fruit,  155; 

pits,  237;  squirting,  159. 
Cupulifera>,  310. 
Currant,  363,  364,  Figs.  481,  482,  483; 

bud.  Fig.  54;  cuttings,  24,  27,  Fig.  38; 

fruit,  153;  stem,  266,  Fig.  409. 
Cuseuta  Gronovii,  381,  Fig.  494. 
Cutting:    severed   piece  of  a   plant   de- 
signed to  propagate  the  plant,   (51), 

(61). 
Cutting-box,  26,  30. 
Cutting  sections,  242,  243. 
Cyclamen,  391. 
Cycloloma  platyphyllum,  163. 
Cydonia,  360. 
Cyme:   broad  more  or  less  flat-topped 

determinate  cluster,  (244). 
Cymose    inflorescence:    central    flowers 

opening  first:  determinate,  (243). 
Cynoglossum,  382. 
Cypress  vine,  380,  Fig.  492. 
Cypripedium,  308. 
Cystolith,  250. 
Daffodil,  303,  Fig.  234. 
Dahlia,  405;  double,  145,  Fig.  232. 
Daisy,   407;   flowers,    142;   ox-eye,   407, 

Fig.  169;  rays,  143;  scape,  120,  Fig. 

185. 
Dalibarda,  134. 
Damping-off,  25,  30. 
Dandelion,  3,  7,   14,  257,  403,  Fig.s.  8, 

275;   flowers,   142;   rays,   143;   scape, 

120;  seeds,  158,  160,  Fig.  275. 
Darwin,  quoted,  213,  231. 
Datura,  379,  Fig.  248. 
Daucus  Carota,  367.  F-g.  180. 


Daughter  cell.  238. 

Day-flower.  302. 

Day-lily.  299,  Figs.  253,  433;  Fig.  432. 

Deciduous:  falling,  (204). 

Decompound,  91. 

Decumbent,  15. 

Decurrent:  running  down  the  stem, 
(195),  Fig.  133. 

Dehiscence:  opening  of  seed-pod  or  an- 
ther, (264),  (287). 

Deliquescent:  tnmk  or  leader  lost  in  the 
branches,   (40). 

Delphinium,  326. 

Dentaria,  335;  pod,  147,  Fig.  240. 

Dentate:    sharp-toothed,    (200). 

Dependent  plants,  85. 

Dermatogen,  253. 

Desert  vegetation.  Fig.  344 

Determinate:  definite  cessation  of 
growth  at  the  apex,  (243). 

Deutzia,  362. 

Dew,  83. 

Dewberry,  21,  358,  Fig.  29,  158;  fruit, 
153. 

Dextrose,  245,  (231). 

Diadelphous;  in  two  groups,  (277). 

Dianthus,  321,  Fig.  456. 

Dicentra,  332. 

Dicentra  inflorescence.  Fig.  172. 

Dichogamy:  stamens  and  pistils  matur- 
ing at  different  times,  (265). 

Diclinous:  imperfect;  having  either  sta- 
mens or  pistils,  (257). 

Dicotyledons,  310. 

Diervilla,  397. 

Digestion:  changing  of  starchy  materials 
into  soluble  and  transportable  forms, 
(168). 

Digitalis  purpurea,  375. 

Digitate,  91. 

Dioecious:  staminate  and  pistillate  flow- 
ers on  different  plants,  133. 

Dispersal  of  .seeds,  158. 

Divergence  of  character,  213. 

Divided,  92. 

Dock,  3;  bitter,  318;  curly,  318. 

Dockmackie,  397. 

Dodecatheon,  391. 

Dodder,  85,  89,  112,  381,  Fig.  494. 

Dogbane,  387. 

Dog's-tooth  violet,  298,  Fig.  431. 

Dogwood  bracts,  106;  tree.  Fig.  356. 

Doorweed,  318,  Fig.  193. 

Dormant  buds,  54. 

Double  flowers,  144. 

Dragon-root,  295. 

Dragon's  head  inflorescence.  Fig.  175. 

Drupe,  fleshy  1-seeded  indehiscent  fruit; 
stone  fruit.  (295). 


420 


INDEX     AND     GLOSSAKY 


Drupelet:  one  drupe  in  a  fruit  made  up 

of  aggregate  drupes,  (296). 
Dryopteris,     172,    291,   Figs.   304,   305, 

420. 
Ducts,  233,  257. 
Dusty  miller,  322, 
Dutchman's  breeches,  332. 
Dutchman's  pipe,  112,  317. 
Dwarf  plants,  204. 
Earth  parasites,  2. 
Echinospermum,  382. 
Echium,  383. 
Ecology:    habits   and   modes   of   life   of 

animals  and  plants,  (369). 
Eglantine,  359. 
Egg-cell,  180. 

Eggplant,  153,  378,  Fig.  261. 
Elater,  189. 

Elder,  119,  398;  red;  39S;  pith,  233 
Elecampane,  411. 
Elliptic,  94. 
Elm,    15,   314,     Figs.   448-450;     flower, 

125,  136;  fruit,  148,  159;  germination, 

171;  leaf.  Fig.  146;  phyllotaxy,  46,  49; 

trunk  of,  60;  shoot,  history,  58,  Figs. 

91-95. 
Elodea,  78,  235,  Fig.  387. 
Embryo:  the  plantlet  in  the  seed,  (305). 
Embryology,  102. 
Embryo-sac,  175. 
Emersed,  198. 
Emetin,  246. 
Endodermis,  253. 
Endogenous  stems,  259. 
Endosperm:  food  in  the  seed  outside 

the  embryo,  (306). 
Enchanter's  nightshade,  366. 
Entire:  margin  not  indented,  (200) 
Entomophilous:    pollinated   by   insects, 

(266). 
Envelopes,  floral,  122. 
Environment:  surroundings;  conditions 

in  which  organisms  grow,  203,  (326). 
Eosin  for  staining,  70. 
Epicotyl:  that  part  of  the  caulicle  lying 

above  the  cotyledons,  (312). 
Epidermis,  254,  259,  260;  of  leaf,  270. 
Epigaea,  393. 
Epigeal:   cotyledons  rising  into  the  air 

in  germination,  (311) 
Epigynous:  borne  on  the  ovary,  (283). 
Epiphyte,  88,  200. 
Epilobium,  365. 
Equisetum,  192,  Fig.  342. 
Eregenia,  367. 
Ericacese,  391. 
Erigeron,  411,  Fig.  501. 
Erythronium,  298,  Fig.  431. 
Eschscholzia,  330. 


Esquimaux,  204. 

Essential  organs:  stamens  and  pistils, 

(250). 
Ether,  241. 

Eupatorium,  90,  413,  Fig.  159. 
Euphorbia  pulcherrima,  247. 
Euphorbiacea'.  319 
Eutropic;   in  the  direction  of  the  sun's 

course,  (231). 
Evening  primrose,  365. 
Evergreen:  remaining  green,  (204). 
Everlasting,  412. 
Everlasting  pea,  350,  Fig,  246. 
Evolution,  232. 
Excretion  by  roots,  71. 
E.xcurrent:   the  trunk   or  leader  contin- 
ued through  the  top,  (39). 
Exogenous  stems,  260. 
Explosive  fruits,  158. 
Exposure,  207. 
Expression,  60. 
Fagopyrum,  318,  Fig.  454. 
Fagus  Americana,  311;  sylvatica,  311. 
Fall  of  leaf,  97,  271. 
Fastigiate  trees,  60,  Fig.  97. 
Fats,  246. 

Fehling's  solution,  241,  247. 
Fern,  19;  cells,  237;  Christmas,  291,  Figs 

304,    305;    cinnamon,    290,    Fig.   419; 

flowering,  290;  lady,  291;  maidenhair, 

291,  Fig.  309;  ostrich,  290;  royal,  290; 

sensitive,  290,  Fig.  310;  fronds,  172; 

in  good  and  poor  light,  42,  Figs.  68. 

69;    stem,    261,    2S4;    discussed,    172, 

191. 
Fertilization:  impregnation  of  the  ovule, 

(2.59). 
Fertilizer,  69. 

Fibrous  root,  7;  tissue,  255. 
Fibro-vascular  bundles,  257. 
Ficus  ela«iica,  251. 
Fig,  climbing.  Fig.  74. 
F^gwort,  374;  family,  372. 
Filament:  stalk  part  of  the  stamen, (254). 
Filiees,  284. 
Fireweed,  purple,  366. 
Five  finger,  354. 
Fixing  sections,  242,  243. 
Flag,  305,  Fig.  437. 
Flagella,  235. 
Flag,  sweet,  296. 
Fleabane,  411. 
Fleur-de-lis.  305. 
Flora:  plant  population  of  a  country  ot 

place;    also    a    book    describing    this 

population,  (327). 
Floral  envelopes,  122. 
Florets:  individual  flowers  of  composites 

and  grasses,  146,  (281). 


INDEX     AND     GLOSSARY 


421 


Flower,  parts  of,  122;  -branches,  114; 
-bud,  39;  -cluster,  114;  -stem,  119. 

Foliage,  (6),  90. 

Follicle:  dry  dehiscent  pericarp  opening 
on  the  front  suture,  (289). 

Food  materials,  72;  reservoirs,  31;  sup- 
ply, 230. 

Forest,  Figs.  361-368,  373,  374;  and 
light,  43;  beginning  of,  222. 

Forget-me-not,  382. 

Formalin,  241.   Formic  acid,  246. 

Forms  of  plants,  59. 

Forsythia,  388. 

Foul-gas    75. 

Foxglove,  3,  375. 

Fragaria,  355,  Figs.  264,  474,  475. 

Framework,  100,  262,  Figs.  3,  4. 

Fra-xinus,  389. 

Free-swimming,  198. 

Freesia  refrarta,  307,  Fig.  439. 

Fringe-tree,  389. 

Fringed  wintergreen,  134. 

Frog  spittle,  178. 

Frond:  leaf  of  fein,  (317). 

Fruit-bud,  39;  -dot,  172;  sugar,  245. 

Fruits,  147. 

Fuchsia,  18,  365;  and  light,  42;  bracts, 
106,  Figs.  160;  cuttings,  26;  flower, 
123,  Fig.  189;  inflorescence,  115; 
phyllotaxy,  49;  water  pores,  271. 

Fumariacea>,  331. 

Fumitory,  332. 

Function:  what  a  plant  or  a  part  does; 
its  vital  activities. 

Fundamental  tissue,  257. 

Fungi,  85,  176,  180. 

Funiculus,  164. 

Funkia,  299,  Figs.  432,  433. 

Galanthus  nivalis,  .304,  Fig.  436. 

Galium,  395;  climbinc:,  108 

Gametophyte,  174,  194. 

Gamopetalus:  corolla  of  one  piece,  (251). 

Gamosepalous:  calyx  of  one  piece,  (251) 

Gaultheria,  393. 

Gaylussacia,  392. 

Gemmae,  187. 

Genealogy,  16,  106. 

Generation:  period  from  birth  to  death, 
(8). 

Gentian,  385,  386. 

Geraniaceae,  341. 

Geranium,  18,  341,  342;  chlorophyll,  75; 
cuttings,  24,  26,  Figs.  32,  36,  37;  fami- 
ly, 341;  fish,  314;  inflorescence.  Figs. 
181,  183;  and  light,  42;  kinds  of ,  313; 
in  window,  121,  163. 

Germander,  370. 

Germination,  164,  165. 

Geuni,  355. 


Gilliflower,  334. 

Gill-over-the-ground,  371. 

Ginger,  19. 

Ginger,  wild.  316. 

Glabrous:  not  hairy,!; 

Gladiolus,  34,  35,  307,  Figs.  50,  440. 

Glaucous:  covered  with  a  "bloom"  or  a 

whitish  substance. 
Gleditschia,  349. 
Globe-flower,  358. 
Globoid  inclusions,  249. 
Glomerule:  dense  head-like  cyme,  (244). 
Gloxinia,  leaf  cuttings,  22. 
Glucose,  245,  247. 
Glume,  146. 
Glycerine,  241. 
Gnaphalium,  412. 
Goat's-beard,  403. 
Goldenrod,  3,  142,  225,  411. 
Goodyera,  309. 
Gooseberry,  27,  153,  363. 
Gourd,  collenchyma,  254. 
Graft:  a  branch  or  bud  made  to  grow  on 

another  plant,  27,  (60),  Figs.  31,  39- 

41. 
Grafting  wax,  30. 
Grape   crystals,    250;    cuttings,    24,    27; 

fruit,   153;   leaves  of,  95;  sugar,  245; 

tendrils,  100,  113,  Figs.  164,  168. 
Grass.  3,  18;  flowers,  146;  pepper,  312; 

pink,  310,  321;  stems,  259. 
Grasses,  framework,  62;  phyllotaxy,  49; 

pollination,  132. 
Grass  of  Parnassus,  362. 
Gratiola,  376. 
Grazing,  223. 
Greek  valerian,  385. 
Greenbriar  tendril,  111;  tissue,  259. 
Grevillea  in  window,  163. 
Ground  cherry,  377. 
Ground-nut,  353. 
Ground  pink,  385. 
Guard  cells,  271,  Figs.  413,  414. 
Guinea  squash,  378,  Fig.  261. 
Gum-resin,  246,  247. 
Gymnosperm:    .seed    naked    (not    in    an 

ovary);  applied  to  pines,  spruces,  etc., 

(299),  155,  292. 
Habenaria,  309. 
Habit:    the   looks,   appearance,   general 

style  of  growth,  (36). 
Habitat:    particular   place    in    which    a 

plant  grows,  (327). 
Hackherry,  315. 
Hackmatack,  294. 
Hair-gra.ss,  163. 
Hairs,  J05;  nature  of,  254,  270. 
Halophytic  societies,  219,  Fig.  371. 
Harbinger  of  spring,  367. 


422 


INDEX     AND     GLOSSARY 


Hardback,  361 . 

Hardwood  cuttiiiK,  27. 

Harebell,  399. 

Hanstoria,  86 

Haw,  lilack,  397,  Fig.  279. 

Hawkweed,  -404,  405. 

Hawthorn.     104,    360,     Figs.     152-155; 

graft,  28. 
Hazel,  133,  158. 

Head:  short  dense  spike,  (239),  Fig.  176. 
Heart -seed,  344. 
Heart's-ease,  337. 

Hedera  Helix,  251,  261,  269,  Fig.  162. 
Hedeoma,  370. 
Hedge  hyssop,  376. 
Helianthus.  407. 
Heliotrope,  381. 
Heliotropism:  turning  towards  the  light, 

(100). 
Hemerocallis,  299. 
Hemerocallis  flava,  299;  fulva,  299. 
Hemlock,  293,  Fig.  425. 
Hematoxylin,  241. 
Hemp,  316,  387. 
Henna  root,  241. 
Hepatica,  148,  324. 
Herbaceous:  not  woody,  (11). 
Herbarium,  279. 
Herb  Robert,  342. 
Heredity,  230. 
Heteropcism,  185. 
Hibiscus,  341,  Fig.  139. 
Hickory,  39,  51,  147,  Figs.  59,  60,  83;  in- 
florescence, 117,  133. 
Hieracium,  404. 
Ililum  or  seed-scar,  165. 
Hip:  fruit  of  the  rose,  155,  Fig.  265. 
Ilobblebush,  398. 
Hog-peanut,  134,  Fig.  215. 
Hollyhock,    .340,    Figs.    206,    207,    235; 

flower,  130,  139,  Figs.  206,  207,  235; 

hairs,  2,35. 
Holly,  phyllotaxy,  49;  tree,  Fig.  352. 
Homology:  related  in  origin  or  structure, 

(211). 
Honesty  fruit,  152. 
Honey  locust,  349;  buds,  37;  leaves,  95; 

thorns,  105;  tree,  63. 
Honesuckle  buds,  37,  53,  Fig.  85;  family, 

396,  397;  leaves.  Fig.  134;  phyllotaxy, 

49;  swamp,  394;  Tartarian,  396;  Fig. 

85;  trumpet,  397;  twiner,  112. 
Hop  clover,  351,  352. 
Hop,  111,  112,  316,  Fig.  167. 
Horehound,  371. 
Horse-chestnut,  346;  bud,  36;  fruit,  Fig. 

251;  leaf-scar,  37;  thyrse,  Fig'.  184. 
Horsemint,  369. 
Horseradish,  335. 


Horsetails,  192,  Fig.  342. 

Horse-weed,  411,  Fig.  501. 

Host,  85. 

Hound's  tongue,  162,  382. 

House-leek,  21;  phyllotaxy,  49. 

Houstonia,  395. 

Huckleberry,  392;  anther,  129. 

Humulus  Japonicus,  316;  lupulus,  316. 

Humus,  202. 

Hyacinth,  35,  299;  crystals,  250;  grape, 

299;    inflorescence,    Fig.    174;    scape, 

120. 
Hydrangea,   119,  363;  doubling,   145. 
Hydrogen,  72. 
Hydrophyllaces,  383. 
Hvdrophytic    society,    219,    Figs.    369, 

377. 
Hypericacea>,  338. 
Hypericum,  339. 
Hypocotyl:    that    part    of    the    caulicle 

lying  below  the  cotyledons,   (311). 
Hypogeal:     cotyledons     remaining     be- 
neath    the    ground    in    germination, 

(311). 
Hypogynous:  borne  on  the  torus,  or  un- 
der the  ovary,  (283). 
Hypoxis,  305. 
Iberis,  336. 
Imbedding,  243. 
Immersed,  198. 
Impatiens,  343,   Figs.  462,  463;   collen- 

chyma,  254;  root-pres.sure,  73;  water 

pores,  271;  seeds,  158. 
Imperfect  flower,  having  either  stamens 

or  pistils,  (257). 
Inclusions,  249 
Incomplete  flower:  any  parts  wanting, 

(257). 
Indehiscent:  not  opening,  (287). 
Independent  plants,  85. 
Indeterminate:    growing    on    from    the 

apex,  (236). 
Indian  pink,  399. 
Indian  pipe,  S5,  394. 
Indian  turnip,  141,  295,  P'ig.  226. 
India-rubber  plant,  246.  250,  251,  269. 
India  wheat,  318. 
Indigo,  false,  351 . 
Indusium,  173. 
Inflorescence:   mode  of  flower-bearing: 

less  properly,  a  flower-cluster,   (246). 
Innocence,  375. 
Insects  and  flowers,  131. 
Internode:  space  between  two  joints  or 

nodes,  (64). 
Inulin,  246. 
Involucre:   a  whorl   of  small    leaves  or 

bracts   standing   close   tmderneath    a 

flower  or  flower-cluster,  (278). 


INDEX     AND     GLOSSARY 


423 


Inula,  411. 

Iodine  test  for  starch,  31,  249. 

Ipeoac,  246. 

Ipomopa,  380,  Figs.  217,  492,  493. 

Iridacecn,  305. 

Iris,  30o,  Fig.  437;  leaf,  269;  stems,  2.59. 

Iron,  72. 

Ironweed,  413. 

Irregular    flower:    some    parts    in    one 

series    different,    (258). 
Irrigation,  207. 
LsoiJtes,  193 
Ivy,  251,  261,  269,  Figs.  162,411;  Kenil- 

worth,  374,  Fig.  486. 
Jack-in-the-Pulpit,    141,   251,   295,   Fig. 

226. 
Jacob's  1  dder,  385. 
Jamestown-weed,  378,  Fig.  248. 
Japan  quince,  360. 
Japan  rose,  358. 
Jeffersonia,  328. 
Jerusalem  artichoke,  408. 
Jewel-weed.  1.58,  343,  Fig.  462,  463. 
Jimson-weed.  378,  Fig.  248. 
Jos  Pye  weed,  413. 
Johnny  jump-up,  337. 
Jonquil,  304. 
Judas  tree,  349. 

Juneb?rries,  359;  and  birds,  161. 
Juniper,  156,  294. 
Kalniia,  393. 

Karyokinesis:  indirect  division  or  trans- 
formation of  the  nucleus,   being  one 

means  of  cell  multiplication;  mitosis, 

239,  (.393). 
Kentucky  coffee  tree,  96. 
Kerria,  358. 

Knotweed,  125,  136,  318,  Fig.  193. 
Labiat.T,  368.    Labiate,  137. 
Laboratory  advice,  240. 
Lactoso,  245. 

Lactuca,   403;   Scariola,  50,  404. 
Ladys-slipper,   140,  308,  Fig.  225. 
Ladies'  tresses,  309. 
Lambkill,  .393. 
Lanceolate,  94. 
Jiandscaps  and  plants,  202. 
Larch,  294;  European,  294. 
Lari.ic  .Xmericana,  294;  decidua,  294. 
Larkspur,  326. 
Lirkspur,  double.  Fig.  233;  flower,  131, 

Fig?.  208-210;  fruit,  148.  Figs.  243, 

244. 
Lathyrus,  233,  349,  Figs.  222,  246. 
Laurel,  393;  sheep,  393. 
Layer:  a  branch  which  takes  root  and 

gives    rise    to  an    independent    plant 

(55). 
Leaf,  fall  of,  97;  how  to  tell,  98. 


Leaflet:   one  part  in  a  compound  leaf, 

(192). 
Leaf-scars,  37,  273. 
Leaves,  arrangement  of,  46;  fall  of,  225 

271;  general  account,  90;  propagation 

by,  22;  structure,  260. 
Legume:   simple   pericarp  dehiscing  on 

both  sutures,  (290). 
Leguminosce,  347. 
Lemon  acid,  246. 
Lens,  126,  Figs.  198,  200. 
Lenticels,  266. 
Leonurus  Cardiaca,  371. 
Lepidium  \'iiginicum,  336 
Lettuce,  404;  experiment  with,  78;  wild, 

50. 
Leucoium  vernum,  304. 
Levulose,  245. 
Liatris,  413. 
Lichen,  88,  176,  186. 
Life-history:   sum  of  the  events  in  the 

life  of  a  plant,  (7). 
Light  and  plants,  42,  215. 
Ligneous:  woody,  (11). 
Lignin,  236. 
Ligule  of  isootcs,  194. 
Ligustrum,  389. 
Lilac,  3S9;    bushes,  100;   bud,  41;   inflo- 

res.'i'iir..  nO:  plivlluia^v.  19. 
Lilies  bllll,l.■t^,  ■_■■_'.  lin  :;();  o.lsets,  21. 
Liliuni,  ■_'lt7,  I'lts,  liiT.,,  :;(),  42),  430. 
Lily,  297;  bulb,  33;  calla,  296,  lig   427; 

Chinese  sacred,  304,  Fig.  435;  Easter, 

297;  tiger,  298,  Fig.  30;  white,  297; 

flowers,  138. 
Lily-of-the-valley,  19,  301. 
Lima  bean,  352. 
Linaria,  373,  Fig.  485,  486. 
Linear,  94. 
Linin,  239. 
LinnEeus,  276. 
Liquorice,  wild,  395. 
Lithospermum,  383. 
Liverleaf,  324.    Liverworts,  186. 
Living  matter,  making  of,  74. 
Lobsd,  92. 
Lobeliacece,  399. 

Locule:  compartment  of  a  pistil,  (285). 
Loeulicidal:     dehiscence     between     the 

partitions,  f292). 
Locust,  346,  347;  buds,  37;  honey,  leaves 

95;  honey,  tree,  63;  sleep  of  50;  thorns, 

105. 
Lodicule,  146. 

I-onicera,  396,  397,  Figs.  85,  495. 
Loosestrife,  391. 
Lotus,  Fig.  135;  starch,  248. 
L\icerne,  352,  Fig.  470. 
Lungwort,  382. 


424 


INDEX     AND     GLOSSAEY 


Lupinus,  353. 

Lychnis  Coronaria,  322;  Githago,  322. 

Lycopersicum  esculentum,  378,  Fig.  186. 

Lyeopus,  369. 

Lysimachia,  391. 

Macrospore,  194. 

Magnesium,  72. 

Maianthemum,  301. 

Maidenliair,  173,  291,  Fig.  309. 

Malic  acid,  246. 

Mallow,  139,  340,  Figs.  170,  224. 

Malt  sugar,  245;  Maltose,  245. 

Malva  rotundifolia,  340,   Fig    224. 

Malvaceae,  340. 

Mandrake,   19,  329. 

Mangrove,  12,  21,  Fig.  17. 

Maple,  15,  46,  Figs.  75,  76,  144;  kinds  of 

316;  branching,  54;  buds,  37,  39,  40; 

dissemination,     160;    flowering,    341; 

phyllotaxy,  49;  trunk  of,  60;  family, 

343;    fruit,     148;    germination,     171, 

Figs.  296-303;  leaf.  Fig.  129;  leaf -scar, 

37. 
Marble  etched  by  roots,  71. 
Marchantia  polymorpha,  186,  Figs.  331- 

£37. 
Mare's-tail,  411,  Fig.  501. 
Marigold,  marsh,  326;  pot,  406. 
Marrubium  vulgare,  371. 
Marsh  mallow,  140,  340. 
Marsh  marigold,  326. 
Marsh  plants,  199,  219. 
Matthiola,  334. 

May  apple,  19,  23,  329.   Mayflower.  393. 
Mayweed,  222,  406. 
Meadow  rue,  325. 
Meadow-sweet,  360. 
Medicago    lupulina,    352;    sativa,    352, 

Fig.  470. 
Medick,  352. 
Medullary  rays,  260. 
Melilotus  alba,  351,  Fig.  469;  officinalis, 

352. 
Melon  fruit,  155. 

Menispermum  stem,  260,  262,  266. 
Mentha,  370,  Fig.  484. 
Meristematic,  252,  257. 
Mertensia,  382. 
Mesophyll,  253,  269. 
Mesophytic  society,  219,  Fig.  370. 
Metaphase,  239. 
Micropyle,  164. 
Microscope,  compound,  241;  dissecting, 

126,  Figs.  198-200. 
Microsome,  234. 
Microspore,  194. 
Microtome,  242. 
Midrib,  93. 
Mignonette,  inflorescence,  116. 


Mildew,  85,  182. 

Milk  sugar,  245. 

Milkweed,   386;   fruit,    151,    Fig.   245; 
seeds,  161,  Fig.  277;  tissue,  257. 

Milkwort,  347. 

Mimulus.  375,  Fig.  487. 

Mint,  370;  family    368;  phyllotaxy,  49. 

Mistletoe,  87. 

Mitosis,  238,  239. 

Mitchella,  395. 

Mifrewort,  362. 

Moccasin-flower,  308. 

Mock  orange,  363. 

Mock  pennyroyal,  370. 

Monadelphous:  in  one  group,  (2771. 

Monoecious:  staminatc  and  pistillate 
flowers  on  the  same  plant,  133. 

Monarda  fistulosa,  369;  didyma,  369. 

Moneywort,  391. 

Monkey-flower,  375,  Fig.  487;  wild,  375. 

Monocotyledons,  97,  294. 

Monop  dial:  axial  growth  continued  by 
growth  from  terminal  bud  or  persis- 
tence of  the  leader,  113. 

Monotropa,  394. 

Moonflower,  111,  380,  Fig.  493. 

Moonseed  stem,  260    262,  266. 

Moose-wood,  345. 

Morning-glory,  380,  Fig.  217;  corolla, 
137,  Fig.  217;  twiner,  111,  112. 

Morphin,  246. 

Morphology,  101. 

Morus  alba,  315,  Fig.  452;  rubra,  315. 

Mosses,  88,  189,  234. 

Mother  cells,  238. 

Motherwort,  371. 

Mould.  86,  180,  181. 

Mountain  ash,  360. 

Mountain  cherry,  357. 

Mountain  plants,  220. 

Mounting  .sections,  242. 

Mowing  and  plants,  223,  Figs.  375,  376. 

Mucilage.  246. 

Muck,  202. 

Mucor,  ISO,  Figs.  318-320. 

Mucus,  246. 

Mulberry,  flowering,  358;  leaves  of.  95; 
shoot.  Fig.  84;  white,  315,  Fig.  452; 
wild,  315. 

Mullein,  3,  16,  373,  Fig.  22;  hairs,  270; 
inflorescence,  116;  pink,  322. 

Muscari,  299. 

Mushroom,  85,  180,  Figs.  120,  121. 

Muskmelon  seedlings.  Fig.  143. 

Mustard,  333,  Fig.  459;  fruit,  152;  inclu- 
sions, 249;  pod,  147. 

Mycelium:  vegetative  part  of  a  fungus, 
(180),  181. 

Mycorrhiza,  87. 


INDEX     AND     GLOSSARY 


425 


Myosotis,  382. 

Myrtle.  388. 

Myxomycetes,  235. 

Naked  flower:  no  floral  envelopes,  (257). 

Narcissus,  35,  303;  double,  Figs.  234,435. 

Nasturtium,  335,  343;  flower,  126,  Fig. 
195;  tendril,  110 

Natural  selection,  231. 

Nectarine,  origin  of,  229. 

Nectary,  131. 

Needle  for  dissecting,  126,  Fig.  199. 

Nerium,  388. 

Nepeta  Cataria,  371,  Fig.  197. 

Netted-veined,  91. 

Nettle,  316;  acid,  246;  hairs,  235. 

Nettle-tree,  315. 

Nicotiana  alata,  379,  Fig.  491;  Tabacum 
379. 

Nicotin,  246. 

Nightshade,  378. 

Nine-bark  fruit,  151. 

Nitella,  235. 

Nitrogen,  72,  249. 

Node:  a  joint;  the  space  between  two 
joints  is  an  internode. 

Nuclear-plate,  239. 

Nucleolus,  234,  239.' 

Nucleus,  233,  248. 

Nuphar,  329. 

Nux  vomica,  246. 

Nymphseaceae,  329. 

Oak,  15,  117,  147,  311,  Fig.  212;  branch- 
ing, 54;  expression,  61;  m-onoccious, 
133;  transpiration  in,  82;  where  grows, 
198;  kinds,  299,  300. 

Oats,  lodged.  Fig.  355;  starch,  249. 

Oblong,  94. 

Obovate,  94. 

Obtuse:  blunt,  (199). 

(Ecology:  see  ecology. 

(I'^nothera,  365. 

Off.set:  a  plant  arising  close  to  the  base 
of  the  mother  plant,  (56). 

Oils,  246,  247. 

Okra,  140. 

01eacea>,  388. 

Ol-ander,  388;  leaf,  269. 

Olive  family,  388;  tree.  Fig.  100. 

Onagraceae,  364. 

Onion  bulb,  33,  35,  Figs.  45,  46;  germi- 
nation, 171;  sugar,  246. 

Onoclea,  290,  Fig.  310. 

Oogonia,  180. 

Oospore,  180. 

Operculum,  191. 

Ophioglo.ssum,  191,  Fig.  341. 

Opium,  246;  poppy,  330. 

Orange,  mock,  363;  O.sage,  315,  Fig.  451. 

Orbicular,  94. 


Orchard,  63,  206,  214,  217. 

Orchid  flowers,  140,  Fig.  225;  roots,  00; 
stems,  259;  epiphytes,  88. 

Orchidacea",  307. 

Orchis,  309. 

Ornithogalum,  299. 

Osage  orange,  49,  105,  315,  Fig.  451. 

Osmorrhiza,  367. 

Osmosis,   66,   Figs.   106-108. 

Osmunda,  290,  Figs.  418,  419. 

Oswego  tea,  369. 

Ovary:  seed-bearing  part  of  a  pistil, 
(256). 

Ovate,  94. 

Overgrowth,  224. 

Oxalic  acid,  246. 

Oxaiis,  J:0,  158, -342,  Fig.  273. 

Ox-eye  daisy,  115,  407,  Fig.  169. 

Oxygen,  72;  liberation,  of  77,  Figs.  Ill, 
112. 

Oyster  plant,  403. 

Pwonia,  326. 

Painted-cup,  376. 

Palet,  146. 

Palisade  cells,  269. 

Palisades  of  Hudson,  Fig.  345. 

Palm,  60,  259,  Fig.  98. 

Palmate,  91. 

Palma  Christi,  320. 

Panicle:   branching   raceme,    (240). 

Panicum  capillare,  163. 

Pansy,  338;  flower,  Fig.  196. 

Papaveracea",  330. 

Papaver  somniferum,  246,  330. 

Papilionaceous  flowers,  13S. 

Pappus:  peculiar  calyx  of  composites, 
(282). 

Parallel-veined,  91. 

Paraphyse,  190. 

Parasite,  85,  200;  vs.  graft,  22. 

Parenchyma,  236,  252. 

Parnassia,  362. 

Parsley,  117,  368. 

Parsnip,  3,  117,  367. 

Parted,  92. 

Parts  of  flower,  122. 

Passion  flower,   127 

Pastinaca  sativa,  367. 

Pasturing,  223. 

Patches,  19,  23. 

Pea,  3;  black,  353,  Fig.  473;  everlasting, 
350,  Fig.  246;  garden,  349,  Figs.  190, 
284;  stock,  353,  Fig.  473;  sweet,  350, 
Fig.  222;  flowers.  138,  Fig.  222;  fruit. 
Fig.  246;  germination,  166,  171,  Fig. 
284;  legume,  151;  tendril,  110. 

Peach,  356,  Fig.  476;  phyllofaxy,  49; 
and  nectarine,  229;  bud,  37,  40;  crys- 
tals, 250;  fruit,  153;  inclusions,  249. 


426 


INDEX     AND     GLOSSARY 


Pear,  359,  Figs.  63,  101,  102,  182,  266; 

phyllotaxy,    49;    sclerenchyma,    2r)7; 

-apple  graft,  28;  bud,  36,  40,  Figs.  C2, 

57,  58,  61-63,  66;  fruit,  155.  Fig.  1:66; 

-hawthorn  graft,  28;  inflorescence,  108, 

Fig.  182;  leaf-scar,  37;  -quince  graft, 

28;  thorns,  104;  tree,  15;  form  of,  63, 

Figs.  101.  102. 
Peat.  202. 
Pedicel:  stem  of  one  flower  in  a  clus'cr. 

(247). 
Peduncle:  stem  of  a  flower  cluster  or  of  a 

solitary  flower,  (247). 
Pelargonium  hortorum,  314,  Fig.  183. 
Peltate:  attached  to  its  stalk  inside  tlio 

margin,  (197),  Figs.  126,  135. 
Pentamerous:  in  5's,  (271). 
Pentstemon.  375. 
Peony  fruit.  151. 
Pepo:   fruit  of   pumpkin,   squash,   etc, 

(298). 
Pepper-grass,  336. 
Pepper,  red,  378,  Fig.  488. 
Peppermint,  370. 
Perennial:    of    three    or    more    seasons' 

duration,   (10). 
Perfect  flower:  having  both  stamens  and 

pistils.    (257). 
Perianth:    floral    envelopes    of    lily-like 

plants   (more  properly  of  nionocoty- 

ledonous  plants),  (275). 
Periblem,  253. 

Pericarp:  ripened  ovary,  (286). 
Perichatia,  190. 
Perigynous:    borne    around    the    ovary, 

(283). 
Peristome,  191. 
Peritherium,  183. 
Periwinkle,  3S7,  388. 
Persistent:    remaining   attached,    (204). 
Personate,  137. 
Petal:  one  of  the  separate  leaves  of  a 

corolla,  (251). 
Petiolule:  stalk  of  a  leaflet,   (196). 
Petiole:  leaf-stalk,  (194) 
Petunia,  378,  Figs.  489,  490. 
Phaseolus,  352,  Figs.  471,  472. 
Phellogen,  266. 
Phenogam:    seed-bearing    or    flowering 

plant,  (325),  292. 
Philadelphus,  363. 
Phloem,  257. 

Phlox,  137,  225,  384,  Fig.  218. 
Phosphorus,  72. 
Photosynthesis:  the  making  of  organic 

matter  from  COo  and    water,  in   the 

presence  of  light,  (163). 
Phyllotaxy:  arrangement  of  leaves  and 

flowers  on  the  stem,  (111). 


Phyllodiuni:    leaf-like    petiole,    (214). 

Phy.salis,  377. 

Pliysostegia    inflorescence.    Fig.    175. 

Picea,  293.  Figs.  270.  271,  424. 

Pie-plant.  317,  Figs.  78,  79 

Pigweed.  3,  62,  Figs.  372    383    384. 

Pine,  15,  292.  Figs.  10  21  145,  272, 
421-3;  cone,  Fi<;-  272:  foliage,  Fig. 
145;  stem.  Fig.  407;  tell-rale.  Fig.  364: 
trees.  Fig    353;  pollination,   132. 

Pine-sap.  394. 

Piney,  326. 

Pink,  321;  dehiscence,  152,  Fig.  2.50. 

Pinnate,    91. 

Pinnatifid,  92. 

Pinus,  292,  Fig.  421-3. 

Pinxter  flower,  394. 

Pistil:  ovule-bearing  or  seed-bearing  or- 
gan, (253). 

Pistillate:  having  [listils  and  no  slaincns. 
(257). 

Pisum  sativum,  349.  Figs.  ICO,  2St. 

Pitchforks,  162,  40S,  Fig.  499. 

Pits,  237. 

Plankton.  199. 

Plantain  infiorescence,   116. 

Plant-breoiling,  231. 

Plant-food,    defined,    61. 

Plasmodium,  235. 

Plerome,  253. 

Plum,  20,  356,  Figs.  194,  262,  478,  479; 
phyllotaxy,  49;  pollination.  Fig.  202; 
blossom.  Fig.  194;  drupe,  153,  Fig. 
262;  thorns,  104. 

Plumule:  bud  in  the  embryo,   (.305). 

Plur-annual:  of  one  .season's  duration 
because  killed  by  frost,   (14). 

Pod:  dehiscent  pericarp,  (287). 

Podophyllum,  329. 

Pogonia,  310. 

Poinscttia,  320;  bracts,  107;  starch, 
247-249. 

Polarity,  50. 

Polemoniacefp,  384. 

Polianthes  tuherosT,  301. 

Pollards,  54,  Fig.  87. 

Pollen  germinating.  Fig.  203. 

Pollen:  spores  borne  by  the  stamen, 
(254),   175. 

Pollination:  transfer  of  pollen  from  sta- 
men to  pistil,   (263). 

Pollinium:  pollen  in  a  coherent  mass, 
(279). 

Polyanthus,  390. 

Polygalaceffi,  346. 

Polygonaeea',  317.  • 

Polygonatum,  301. 

Polygonum,  318,  Figs.  193,  4,55;  climb- 
ing,  108. 


INDEX     AND     GLOSSARY 


427 


Polyhedral,  233. 

Polypetalous:   corolla  of  separate  parts 

or  petals,  (251). 
Polvpode.  173,  285,  Fifis.  306,  307. 
Polypodium,  291. 
Polyporus,  F!g.  121. 
Polysepalous:  caly.x  of  .separate  parts  or 

sepals,  (251). 
Polytrichum  commune,  ISO,  Figs.  33S- 

340. 
Pome:  fruit  of  apple,  pear,  etc  ,   (29S'>. 
Pond-lily,  329. 
Poplar  bud,  36;  cuttings,  27;  dirrrioiis, 

133;  inflorescence,  117;  phyllotaxy,  49 

shape,  60,  Fig.  97;  seeds,  161. 
Poppy,  330;  opium,  246,  330. 
Purtulaca,  339;  fruit,  Fig.  254. 
Portulacacea>,  339. 
Pot  marigold,  406. 
Potassium,  72;  hydroxide,  241. 
Potato,   16,  35,   153,  378,  Figs.  24,  42, 

219;    and   osmosis,    68;    cuttings,    24; 

flower,  137,  Fig    219:  inchi.sions,  249; 

onion.  33,  Figs.  45,  46;  sprouts,  31.  76, 

85,  Fig.  42;  starch,  31,  35,  248,  249, 

Fig.  42;  sweet,   16,  380. 
Potato-tomato  graft,  28. 
Potentilla,  354. 
Prickles,  105. 
Prickly  ash,  105,  Fig.  157. 
Primrose,  390;  fruit.  Fig.  249. 
Primula  Sinensis,  270,  390. 
Primulacea?,  390. 
Prince's  feather,  319. 
Privet,  389. 
Propagation   by   buds,    22;    leaves,    22; 

roots,  20. 
Prophase,  239. 
Prosenchyma,  255. 
Prostrate  plants,  204. 
Protein,  249. 
Proterandrous:   anthers  maturing  first, 

(265). 
Proterogvnous:    pistils    maturing    first, 

(265). 
Prothallus,  173,  Fig.  312. 
Protococcus,  233,  234. 
Protonema,  191. 
Protoplasm,  80,  233. 
Prunus,  356,  Figs.  476-480. 
Pseud-annual:    perennial    by    means   of 

tubers,  bulbs,  etc.,  (13). 
Pteridophyte,  176. 
Pteris,  291. 
Pteris  aquilina,  173,  237,  291,  Figs.  125, 

308. 
Puccinia     graminis,     183,     Figs.     325- 

330, 
Pulse  family,  347. 


Pumpkins  and  corn, 213,  Fig.  358;  flower, 

137;    collenchyma,    254;    fiuit,    155; 

hairs,  270;  roots,  268. 
Purslane,  339. 
Pusley,  339 

Pussies  of  willow,  117,  Fig.  213. 
Pyrus,  359. 
Pyxis:    pod   opening    around     the    top, 

(292),  Fig.  254. 
Quack-grass,  19,  20. 
Quercus,  311,  Figs.  441-447. 
Quillwort,  193. 
Quince,  360;  fruit,  155. 
Quince-pear  graft,   28. 
Raceme:  simple  elongated  indeterminate 

cluster    with   stalked    flowers,    (237), 

Fig.  173. 
Radial,  261;  bundles,  267. 
Radish,  336;  and  light,  42,  Fig.  70;  fruit, 

152;    root,    7,    13,    17,    64,    Figs.    11, 

103. 
Ragweed,  222,  225,  405,  Fig.  497;  great, 

405. 
Ranunculacesp,  323. 
Ranunculus,  325. 
Raphanus,  336. 
Raphides,  250. 
Raspberry,  20,  21,  161,  358,  Fig    263; 

fruit,  153;  leaf.  Fig.  128. 
Rattlesnake  plantain,  309. 
Ray;  outer  modified  florets  of  some  com- 
posites, (282). 
Reagents,  241. 

Receptacle,  123;  of  liverwort,  187. 
Redbud, 349. 
Regular  flower:  the  parts  in  each  series 

alike,  (258). 
Reinforced  fruit:  other  parts  grown  to 

the  pericarp,   153,   (286). 
Reniform,  94. 
Resins,  246. 
Respiration:    taking    in    O,    giving    off 

CO2,  (172,  173);  in  seeds,  165. 
Resting-spore,  179. 
Rheumatism  root,  328. 
Rheum     Rhaponticum,    317,    Figs,    78, 

79. 
Rhizome:  undergroimd  stem;  rootstock, 

(44),  19,  starch  in,  31. 
Rhododendron  anther,  129. 
Rhubarb,  3,  36,  45.  317,  Figs.  78,  79. 
Ribes,  363;  Figs.  481-483. 
Rice  starch,  249. 

Richardia  Africana,  296,  Fig.  427. 
Ricinus,  320. 
Rind,  2.59. 

Rings  of  annual  growth,  107,  263. 
Robinia,  348,  349;  spines,  105. 
Rock  cress,  334. 


428 


INDEX     AND     GLOSSAKY 


Root -climbers,  108;  cutting,  21;  -hairs, 
9,  12,  64,  Figs.  11,  103-105,  110;  -pres- 
sure, 69,  73,  P"ig.  109;  system,  7;  ex- 
crete, 71;  how  elongate,  17;  need  air, 
70;  propation  by,  20;  structure,  259, 
267. 

Rootstock:  subterranean  stem;  rhizome, 
19,  (U). 

Rosa  Carolina,  359;  humilis,  359;  lucida, 
359;  rubiginosa,  359. 

Rosaceae,  353. 

Rose  acacia,  349. 

Rose  cutting.  Fig.  34;  family,  353;  hip, 
155,  Fig.  265;  mallow,  341;  -mo.ss, 
339,  Fig.  254;  of  Shaion,  341;  swamp, 
359;  climbing,  108;  prickles,  105. 

Rotate,  137. 

Rowan,  360. 

Rudbeckia  hirta,  407,  Fig.  498;  laciniata 
407. 

Rubus,  358,  Figs.  158,  263. 

Rubicacese,  394. 

Rue  anemone,  324. 

Rumex,  318,  Fig.  453. 

Runner:  a  trailing  shoot  taking  root  at 
the  nodes,  (56). 

Russian  thistle,  163,  Fig.  99. 

Rust,  85,  183. 

Rutland  beauty,  380. 

Rye-flower,  146,  Fig.  239. 

Saccharose,  245. 

Sacred  lily,  Chine.se,  304,  Fig.  435. 

.Sage,  common,  107,  369;  scarlet,  369. 

St.  John's  -wort,  125,  :339,  Figs.  192,  252. 

St.  Peter's  wreath,  361. 

Salsify,  403. 

Salt-loving  societies,  219,  Fig.  371. 

Saltpeter,  in  osmosis,  66. 

Salverform,    137. 

Salvia  officinalis,  369;  splendens,  369. 

Samara:  indehiscent  winged  pericarp, 
(287). 

Sambucus  Canadensis,  398,  racemosa; 
398. 

Sanguinaria,  330. 

Sapindacese,   343. 

Saponaria  officinalis,  321. 

Saphrophyte,  85,  86,  200 

Sassafras,  136. 

Saxifrage,  362. 

Sa.xifragaceffi,   361;   crystals,   250. 

Scalariform:  with  elongated  markings, 
(390). 

Scape:  leafless  peduncle  arising  from  the 
ground,   (248). 

Scenery  and  plants,  202. 

Sclerenchyma,  236,  257. 

Scouring  rush,  193. 

Scramblers,  108. 


Scrophularia,  374. 

Serophulariacece,  372. 

Scutellaria,  371. 

Sacondary  thickening,  263. 

S3dgHS,  phyllotaxy,  49. 

Seed:  a  reproductive  body  containing  an 

embryo  plant,  5. 
Seed,  coats,  164;  starch,  in  31;  dispersal, 

l.'j8;  -variations,  228. 
Selection,  231. 
Self-fertilization:  secured  by  pollen  from 

same  flower;  close  fertilization,  (260). 
Self-heal,  370. 
Self-pollination:  transfer  of  pollen  from 

stamen  to  pistil  of  sama  flower;  close- 
pollination,  (263). 
Seneca  snakeroot,  347. 
Senna,  353. 
Sepal:  one  of  the  separate  leaves   of  a 

calyx,   (251). 
Septicidal:   dehiscence  along  the   parti- 
Serrate:  saw-toothed,  (200). 
Service  berry,  359. 
Sessile:  not  stalked,  (195). 
Shadbush,  359. 

Shade  and  leaves,  98;  and  plants,  215. 
Shadows  in  trees,  61. 
Sharon,  Rose  of,  341. 
Sheep  and  plants,  224. 
Sheepberry,  397,  Fig.  279. 
Sheep  sorrel,  318,  Fig.  453. 
Shepherdia,   hairs,   270, 
Shepherd's  purse  capsule,  152,  336,  Fig. 

259. 
Shooting  star,  391. 
Sieve  tissue,  254. 
Silene,  322. 

Silicle:  short  fruit  of  Crucifera>,  (293). 
Silique:  long  fruit  of  Cruciferae,  (293). 
Silkweed,  386. 
Silphium,  50. 

Simple  pistil:  of  one  carpel,  (255). 
Sinistrorse;  left-handed,  (231). 
Sisyrinchium,  306. 
Skullcap,  371. 

Skunk  cabbage,  141,  225,  250,  295. 
Sleep  of  leaves,  50. 
Slips,  24. 

Sn.artweed,   125,   136,   148,  31S,  319. 
Smilacina  racemosa,  301;  stellata,  301. 
Smilax  of  florists,  103,  301,  Fig.  434. 
Smilax   tendril.    111. 
Snakehead,  374. 
Snapdragon,  137,  374,  Fig.  220. 
Snowball,    145,    Figs.    236,    237,    334; 

.Japanese,  398. 
Snowberry,  Fig.  260. 
Snowdrop,  304,  Fig.  436. 


INDEX     AND     GLOSSARY 


429 


Snowflake,  304. 

Soapberry  family,  343. 

Soapwort,  321. 

Societies,  219. 

Softwood  cutting,  24. 

Soil  and  plants,  200;  and  variation,  206; 
holds  moisture,   70;   water  from,   64. 

SolanacesB,  377. 

Solanum,  108,  378,  Figs.  42,  219,  261. 

Solidago,  410. 

Solitary  flowers,  115. 

Solomon's  seal,  301;  filse,  301;  two- 
leaved,  301. 

Sonchus,  404. 

Soredia,  186. 

Sori    172,  184. 

Sorrel,  318,  Fig.  453. 

Spadix:  thick  or  fleshy  spike  of  certain 
plants,  (280). 

Spanish  bayonet,  162;  moss,  88. 

Spathe:  bract  surrounding  or  attending 
aspadi.x,  (280),  141. 

Spatterdock,  329. 

Spatulate,  94. 

Spearmint,  370,  Fig.  484. 

Species,  275. 

Specularia,  398. 

Speedwell,  376. 

Spencer,  quoted,  231 

Spermatozoids,  190. 

Sperm-cell,  180. 

Spiderwort,  235,  302. 

Spike:  compact  more  or  less  simple,  in- 
determinate cluster,  with  flowers  ses- 
sile or  nearly  so,  (238).  Figs.  174,  175. 

Spikelet:  a  secondary  spike;  one  of  a 
compound  spike,  146. 

Spikenard,  false,  301. 

Spines,  104,  105. 

Spiranthes,  309. 

Spirea,  360;  inflorescence,  117,  Fig.  179. 

Spring  beauty,  339. 

Spirogyra,  178,  233,  234,  Fig.  313,  314. 

Spleen  wort,  291. 

Sporangia  of  ferns,  172;  stamens,  124. 

Sporangiophore,  181. 

Spore:  a  simple  reproductive  body,  usu- 
ally composed  of  a  single  detached  cell 
containing  no  embryo,  5,  86,  172,  ISO. 

Spore-case,  172. 

Sporogonium,  188. 

Sporophyll,  176. 

Sporophyte,  174,  194. 

Spruce,  15,  293.  Figs.  270,  271.  424. 

Spruce  cone,  Fig.  271;  seed.  Fig.  155. 

Spurge,  320. 

Squash  fruit,  155,  Fig.  269;  germination. 
171;  Guinea,  378,  Fig.  261;  hairs,  105, 
235;  roots,  268. 


Squirrel  corn,  332. 

Squirrels  and  birds.  47.   162. 

Stains,  241. 

Stamen:  pollen-bearing  organ,  (253). 

Staminate:  having  stamens  and  no  pis- 
tils,  (257). 

Stand,  dissecting,  127,  Fig.  201. 

Staphylea,  346. 

Star  of  Bethlehem,  299. 

Starch  and  sugar.  246;  as  plant-food.  64; 
discussed,  247-249;  how  made,  77,  78; 
storage  of,  31. 

Star-grass,  305. 

Steeple,  compared  with  plants,  18. 

Stick-seed,  382. 

Stellaria  media,  323,  Fig.  457. 

Stellate,  233. 

Stem,  how  elongates,  17;  structure,  259; 
system,  14;  tubers,  33. 

Stemless  plants,  15. 

Sterile  flower:  no  stamens  or  pistils, 
(257). 

Stick-tight,  162,  382. 

Stigma:  part  of  the  pistil  wliich  receives 
the  pollen,  (256). 

Stipel:  stipule  of  a  leaflet,  (196). 

Stipule:  a  certain  basal  appendage  of  a 
leaf,   (194);  as  spines,   105. 

Stock,  334. 

Stock:  the  part  on  which  the  cion  is 
grafted,  (69). 

Stolon:  a  shoot  which  bends  to  the 
ground  and  takes  root,   (56). 

Stomate,  75,  271,  273. 

Stone  fruit,  153. 

Storehouses,  31. 

Strawberry,  355,  356,  Fig.  475;  plant. 
15.  21;  fruit.  153,  155,  Fig.  264. 

Straw  lilies,  300. 

Struggle  for  existence,  52,  209. 

Strychnin,  246. 

Style:  elongated  part  of  the  pistil  be- 
tween the  ovary  and  stigma,  (256). 

Stylophorum,  331. 

Suberin,  236. 

Suckers,  54;  of  fungi,  86. 

Sugar,  245,  246. 

Sulfur,  72. 

Summer-spore,  183. 

Sundrops,  365. 

Sunflower,  3,  19.  407,  Figs.  3,  4,  23,  27; 
doubling,  145;  family,  400;  inflores- 
cence, 116,  Fig.  177;  rays,  143;  society 
225;  transpiration  in,  82. 

Sunlight  and  plants,  42,  214. 

Supernumerary  buds:  more  than  one  in 
an  axil,  (87). 

Suri'ival  of  the  fittest,  231. 

Swamp  plants,  199,  219. 


430 


INDEX     AND     GLOSSARY 


Swarm-spore,  179. 

Sweet  alyssum,  336,  Fig.  460. 

Sweetbriar,  359. 

Sweet  Cicely,  367. 

Sweet  pea,  110,  350,  Figs.  165,  222. 

Sweet  potato,  16,  380. 

Sweet  Williain,  321,  Fig.  456. 

Sycamore,  273,  Fig.  417. 

Symbiosis,  186. 

Symplocarpus  foetidus,  295. 

Sympodial:  axial  growtii  continued  by 

successive  lateral  shoots,  1 13 
Syngenesious:  anthers  united  in  a  rins, 

(282). 
Syringa,  363,  389. 
Tabular,  233. 
Tamaraclv    294. 
Tanecetum  vulgare,  408. 
Tangle-berry,  392. 
Tannin,  246. 
Tansy,  408. 
Tap-root,  7. 

Tara.xacum  officinale,  403,  Figs.  8,  275. 
Tare,  350. 
Teasel,  3. 

Tecoma,  10;  capsule,  152,  Fig.  258. 
Teleutospore,  184. 
Telophase,  240. 
Tendril,  109;  roots  as,  10. 
Terrestrial,  199. 
Teucrium,  370. 
Thalictrum,  325. 

Thallophyte,  176,  178.   Thallus,  178. 
Thi-stle,    142,   404,   409,    Figs.   228-230, 

276;    down,    161,    Fig.   276;    Rus.sian, 

Fig.  99;  star,  410. 
Thorn  spines,  104,  Figs.  152-155. 
Thoroughwort,  413,  Fig.  159. 
Thyrse:    compound    cluster   with    main 

axis  indeterminate  and  branches  de- 
terminate, (245). 
Thuja,  294,  Fig.  426. 
Tiarella,  362. 
Tiers  of  branches,  54. 
Tiger-flower,   375,   Fig.  487;   lily,    298, 

Fig.  30. 
Tillandsia,  88. 
Tissues,  252;  systems,  257. 
Toad-flax,  20,  23,  373,  374,   Figs.  255, 

485;  flower,  137;  poUination,  132,  Fig. 

211. 
Toadstools,  180 

Tobacco,  379;  cell-sap,  246;  Indian,400. 
Tomato,  121,  378,  Fig.  186;  fruit,  153; 

graft,  28. 
Toothwort,  335. 
Torus:  part  or  organ  to  which  the  parts 

of  the  flower  are  attached;  upper  end 

of  the  flower-stalk.   (252). 


Touch-me-not,  343. 

Toxylon  pomiferum,  315,  Fig.  451. 

Tracheids,  256. 

Tradescantia,  235,  238,  302. 

Tragapogon,  403. 

Transpiration,  giving  off'  of  water,  (174). 

Trees,  forms  of,  59;  struggle  in,  53. 

Trifolium,  350,  Figs.  82,  468. 

Trillium,  138,  300,  Fig.  221;  society,  225. 

Trimerous:  in  3's,  (271). 

TropiEolum,  342,  Fig.  195. 

Trumpet-creeper,  10,  152,  Fig.  258. 

Truncate:     appearing    as     if     cut     off; 

squared,  (199),  Fig.  141. 
Tsuga  Canaden.sis,  293,  Fig.  425. 
Tuber:  short  congested  part,  (77). 
Tuberose,  304. 

Tulipa  Gesneriana,  298;  suaveolens.  298. 
Tulip-tree  fruits,  160;  leaf.  Fig.  141. 
Tumble-weeds,   163. 
Turnip,  7,   13;  fruit,   152;   Indian,   295. 

Fig.  226. 
Turnip,  starch  in,  31,  Fig.  44. 
Turtlehead,  374. 
Tu.ssilago,  410. 
Twigs,  history  of,  56;  starch  in,  32,  Fig. 

43. 
Twiners,   108,   111. 
Twin-leaf,  328. 

Ulmus,  314,  Figs.  146,  448,  449,  450. 
Umbel:  corymbose  cluster  with  branches 

of  about  equal  length  and  arising  from 

a  common  point,  (242). 
Umbellet:  secondary  umbel,  (242). 
Umbelliferae,  366. 
Undergrowth,  224. 
Undulate:   wavy, (200). 
Uredospore,  185. 
Urtica  dioica,  316;  gracilis,  316. 
Urticaceae,  313. 
Uvularia,  300. 
Vacuole,  234. 
Vaccinium,  392. 

Valves:  separable  parts  of  a  pod,  (278). 
Variation,  228. 
Vascular,  233,  256. 
Vaucheria,  179,  233,  Figs.  315,  316. 
Vegetable  mould,  202. 
Velum,  194. 

Venation:  veining,  (191). 
Verbascum,  373,  Fig   22;  hairs,  270. 
Verbena,  372;  cutting,  Fig.  35. 
Verbenacese,  372. 
Vernonia,  413 
Veronica,  376. 
Verticillate:  with  three  or  more  leaves  or 

flowers  at  one  node,  (112). 
Vervain,  372. 
Vetch,  360. 


INDEX     AND     GLOSSARY 


431 


Vetchling,  349. 

Viburnum,  397,  Fig.  279. 

Vicia,  350. 

Vigna  Sinensis,  353,  Fig.  473. 

Vinca,  387. 

Vine,   cypress,   380,    Fig.   492. 

ViolaeeiB,  337. 

Violet,  3,  337,  338;  cleistogamous,  134, 

Fig.  216;  seeds,   158;  society.  225. 
Viper's  Buglo.?s. 
Virgin's  bower,  327 
Virginia  creeper,  tendril,  109,  113,  Fig. 

163. 
Wake-robin,  300. 
Wallflower  fruit,  152;  hairs,  270. 
Walnut  buds,  37,  133,  147. 
Wandering  Jew,  303. 
Water,  how  the  plant  takes,  64;  -lily,  3, 

198;  pores,  271;  roots  search  for,  9. 
Waterleaf,  383. 
Watersprout,  21,  54. 
Water  cress,  335. 
Water  hoarhound,  369. 
Water-lily,  329. 
Wax  for  grafting,  30. 
Wax-work,  twiner,  112. 
Weigela,  397. 
Weeds,  214,  222. 
Wheat  field,  Fig.  357;  flower,  146,  Fig. 

238;  India,  318;  rust,  183,  Figs.  325- 

330;  starch,  249. 


Whiteweed,  407,  Fig.  169. 

Whorl:  three  or  more  leaves  or  flowers  at 
one  node,   (112). 

Wild  oats,  300. 

William,  Sweet,  321,  Fig.  456. 

Willow  buds,  41,  Fig.  86;  cuttings,  21, 
dioecious,  133;  expression,  61;  inflores- 
cence, 117,  Fig.  213;  mildew,  182, 
Figs.  321,  324;  phyllotaxy,  49;  pol- 
lard. Fig.  87;  pussies,  Fig.  56;  seeds, 
161. 

Willow-herb,  365. 

Wilting,  68,  71,  83,  84. 

Wind  and  plants,  204;  travelers,  159. 

Wind-flower,  324 

Window  box,  163. 

Winter  bud,  36. 

Wmter-pre.=:«,  334. 

Wmtergreen,  393;  anther,  129;  flower- 
ing, 347. 

Wistaria,  112,  347. 

Wood  sorrel,  342. 

Xanthium,  405,  Fig.  496. 

Xerophytic  society,  219,  Fig.  344. 

Xylem,  257. 

Yarrow.  406. 

Yeast,  234. 

Yew  fruit,  156. 

Zebrin^i,  303. 

Zone  societies,   225,   Fig.   380. 

Zygospore,  179. 


ihe  cnKiigmii  uii„'  ot     t  i.l  uit   uhi   li  piopagites,  its,elf 

by  means  of  rootstocks  — feae.iline  a  plant  recently  introduced  troni  Asia 

allied  to  docks  and  smartweeds. 


M.  C.  SiaU 


<See  pa«o  M.)i 


CYCLOPEDIA  OF  AMERICAN 
HORTICULTURE 

By   L.  H.   BAILEY 

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CYCLOPEDIA  OF  AMERICAN 
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Edited  by  L.   H.   BAILEY 

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